Cultural Autobiography Essay

My name is Hanan Hassan, and I was born in September 21, 1992 in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. I am the eldest of nine children that consist of four girls including me and five boys. To most people I am an ordinary twenty- one year old who works and goes to school, but what most people don’t know is that I’m basically the second mother of my household. Even though my mother is alive and well, I was taught at a young age to take responsibility and to be responsible like an adult. Not only do I take care of my siblings, but I cook and clean and do everything my mother does, because I was raised to do those things easily without complain. Anyone who isn’t part of my family/friends would look at my life and think I have no freedom. But the way I was raised taught me to be an adult, yet act my age. When I look back at the past years, I was raised in three different cultures. My whole life consists of being raised in three different cultures, but most importantly, the culture I was born into is the one that I identify with the most. I say that because that’s who I am, and I am a Somali native. Although I have a different nationally, my ethnicity is who I am. Mostly, people nowadays cannot differentiate between the two. My nationality is where I was born in, and my ethnicity is who I am. As a child I struggled with both. I grew up in a town full of Arabs, and the only Somalians I actually interacted with were my family. In any event, if you don’t know much about your identity, you go into this crisis mode. Until I came to America, all I knew was that I was a Muslim and Somalian. There’s this need to know who you are, and where you come from, and every day you learn something new about your identity. When I came to America, there was a huge culture shock. For instance religiously, I grew up in countries where there was a mosque in every couple of blocks, and here the opposite were churches. Everywhere I looked was a church. It was a complete different atmosphere. In the Muslim countries, when it was time for prayer, you would be able to hear the entire mosques at once calling everyone to pray. And it was very weird not being able to hear the call for prayer time. But as month and years passed, I’ve gotten used to not hearing that. Not only was not hearing the call to prayer different, but holidays didn’t have the same effect as they used to. In the United States, when it’s turns winter, the festivities of the holidays begin. I don’t even  celebrate Christmas, but when everywhere you look at is lit up for Christmas, you feel part of a community. Since everyone around you is celebrating all these holidays, you feel as though you’re part of it. Whenever Eid comes around, it doesn’t feel the same way as it did as to when I was a child. For instance, when it was Ramadan time in Saudi Arabia, everyone used to get together to have big feasts. People would always stay up late and wait for the call of prayer, so that everyone can start fasting again. Also, shops would close early when it was time to eat. Families and friends would celebra te the whole month together, and go to the mosque together. Not only was everyone up, the whole city would be decorated and children would get gifts and monies from the elders, and it was just a beautiful time to be a kid. When you compare the American culture and the ones I grew up in as a child, they are completely different. The way we dress here, eat, family, religion, and everything else is different. For instance, in Saudi Arabia, the culture there is for women to cover up. Women are covered from head to toe. Majority of it is because the Saudi culture is influenced by religion, whereas in America everything is by choice. Our women in America have the choice to cover or not, and in Saudi Arabia, if women are not covered, there are consequences to pay. As child, I was able to wear whatever I wanted, because I was not a woman yet. I remember women not being able to drive, just for the fact that they’re women. Men were able to do anything they wanted, whereas women mostly stayed home. Mostly, women stayed home and took care of the family members. They did all the cleaning and cooking, whereas the man went to work and did all of the outside work. Not only did women stay home, they were also no t allowed to drive, which was a culture shock when I saw women driving in America and Egypt. I never really understood as to why women couldn’t drive a car, but it was illegal for them to do that. Women don’t have much say there, because the Saudi government uses religion as an excuse to minimize all of the rights women have. They say a woman shouldn’t drive, because her husband should be able to take her to wherever she pleases, but reality is no one is willing to do that. Additionally the problem wasn’t just the covering part; the problem was women’s rights being oppressed. And when you’ve lived in an environment like that it’s hard to get used to a new culture that established freedom among every individual. In addition, the cultures I was raised in required  me to cover up and to respect myself and the others around me. Both of my cultures are two cultures that heavily rely on religion. Sometimes it’s hard to separate what the religion requires and what your culture requires. Although, now some think both are one in the same, but people interpret each one differently. In other words, people put religion and culture in the same category. For example, my family is very conservative. Both of my parents come from strict families who take religion very seriously. Back in the 1980s and 1990s, religion was starting to develop in Somalia. When my mother was thirteen years old, people used to wear thin materials that practically show cased their whole body. And my grandmother used to have her hair out in an afro as wells as wearing pants. At that time, people didn’t criticize women for hanging out with their male friends. It was not a big deal in the culture. For this project I interviewed my mother, who as I got older, helped me learn more about my culture. Whenever my mother would tell me stories of her teen years, I would always complain about why she was so judgmental of how I dressed. In the interview, she explained to me that people didn’t know much about religion back when my grandmother was young. So there weren’t that many rules to enforce upon them, unlike us who are very much educated about religion. As my mother continued and talked more about our culture, I realized that my culture is influenced a lot by religion, but that doesn’t necessarily mean that every aspect about the culture comes from religion. Similarly, the school I went to, my neighbors, and everything that surrounded me consisted of religion. For instance, during the weekdays I went to school, and during the weekends I went to another school that was a religious study. Other than the American culture, the thing that ties a lot of people to their culture is religion, because I’ve learned over the years that a lot of cultures are strict because they mix their religion and culture together; so that it becomes easier for them to handle. Above all, when I came to America, I quickly learned to maneuver between the culture I was raised in and the culture that surrounded me. I’ve learned to manage between both, so that I don’t forget my roots, yet still manage to stay in the one I came into. It’s tough maintaining between both, because they’re both so completely different. In the American culture, I learned to be independent and to voice my opinions, so that I can live the life I want. In contrast, in my culture, I wouldn’t be able to voice out my  opinion so easily and openly. In essence, looking back in my life, I realized that the cultures I was raised in have shaped my life and made me the person I am today. Although there are many things that I personally don’t agree with in each culture, at the end there the reason I have grown into the open mined human being I am. Each culture has its positives and negatives. In the Saudi culture, I learned responsibility at a young age, but it was a lesson well learned, because you don’t see a lot of twenty- one year olds who are so aware of their life and the choices they make. Moreover, I learned that being multicultural teaches you and gives you the opportunity to look at life differently. Most people grow up in one culture, and they only have the views they’re presented to them. But moving around, taught me that there are other ways to look at this world. Every culture has an opinion on how this world should function, and being able to represent few cultures gives me the opportunity to voice out an opinion that has some background roots to it. I not only represent the culture I was born into, but I represent that ones I was raised into. I’m not only multicultural educated, but I’m also multilingual. Being raised and exploring other cultures also gave me the chance to speak more than one language. In addition, I speak three languages: Arabic, English, and Somali. Over the years, I’ve struggled with figuring out who I am, because unlike everyone else I didn’t grow up in one place. That may seem like a downside, but I gained values and lessons that I can carry throughout my life. I gained cultural experience between the cultures, and I gained religious knowledge, and lastly I gained how to communicate with individuals outside my culture. With all of that, I gained the knowledge of knowing who I am, and where I’m from. We don’t know how tied where are to our roots and ethnicities until you learn to explore other cultures around you. There are people around us that are so close minded of the world, and what it offers that they continue to purse being ignorant of others around them. If we pursue our surrounding and environments, we begin to go on a road full of fulfillment that leads to discovering more about our inner selves.

Love and Dedication in The Old Man and the Sea

There are two unique relationships that are touched upon in the novella The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemingway.   The first relationship is the friendship and love that occurs between the old man, Santiago and his young companion, Manolin.   They have bonded over the years in a unique father-son relationship.   The other significant relationship that the story emphasizes is the one between Santiago and the fish.   It is apparent the strong love that Santiago feels for his adversary. Through these two relationships, Santiago displays his love and dedication. The endurance of love is displayed through the relationship of Santiago and his friend, Manolin.   Their relationship has seen both ups and downs, but through it all, Manolin has stood by the old fisherman.   In the beginning of the novella, we learn that Manolin’s family has forced him to work on a different fishing boat to gain more profit.   Despite this, he still visits his old employer and helps him take care of himself and his boat.   By bringing him food and water, he is displaying his genuine feelings for Santiago.   The reader sees in the final scenes, how deep this love and affection runs.   Manolin weeps for his friend as if he has suffered the loss of the marlin as well. These feelings that Manolin has built up has been the result of the companionship that they have shared through the years.   Santiago was the one who taught Manolin how to fish and has been his friend for many years.   Santiago has become a father figure for Manolin since he did not have that type of relationship with his own father.   Santiago has been able to give the boy friendship along with feelings of self-worth.   The boy feels that Santiago is the greatest fisherman: â€Å"There are many good fishermen and some great ones. But there is only one you† (Hemingway 23).   This strong bond enables Manolin to empathize when Santiago loses his great prize. Santiago has a great love for his only friend.   Without Manolin, he would be alone and he is grateful to have the boy in his life. He no longer dreamed of storms, nor of women, nor of great occurrences, nor of great fish, nor fights, nor contests of strength, nor of his wife. He only dreamed of places now and of the lions on the beach. They played like young cats in the dusk and he loved them as he loved the boy. (Hemingway 25) The reader is revealed Santiago’s strong affection for his companion when he is alone on the boat.   When the struggle between Santiago and the marlin ensues, he wishes that Manolin was there with him.   As he's towed by the fish, the old man says: â€Å"I wish I had the boy† (Hemingway 45).  Ã‚   Santiago is very appreciative of Manolin and enjoys sharing stories with him. They talk of baseball and he relays tales of the time that he spent in Africa.   The way that the boy looks up to the old man makes him feel significant.   He feels as though he has something to teach the boy and the boy respects the skills of the man. The boy is the one bright spot in Santiago’s return from his battle with the fish.   He is content with the fact that he has defeated such a creature and is able to return to see his friend again before he joins his great fish for eternity. Santiago has a strong dedication to fishing.   In the beginning of the tale, we learn that the man has gone eighty-four days without catching a single fish.   However, he does not give up hope that his luck will change and that he will begin catching fish again.   He has dedicated his life to fishing and will not stop because he has had a run of bad luck.   Hemingway remarks â€Å"Everything about him was old except his eyes and they were the same color as the sea and were cheerful and undefeated† (Hemingway 10).   He does not wish to rely on luck, but would rather have faith in his skill as a fisherman. He has dedicated his life to fishing and has it down to an exact science.   He focuses all his energies on fishing: â€Å"Now is the time to think of only one thing. That which I was born for† (Hemingway 40).   This is why he makes such a formidable opponent for the marlin.   He knows the signs of a large fish and looks for them when he sets out on the water.   Furthermore, once he defeats the fish, he has the skill and ability to lash the great fish to the side of his skiff and set out for home. Despite the battle between the marlin and the old man, it is obvious that the man feels a great amount of love and respect for the creature.   He is impressed by its greatness and realizes that regardless of his determination, it is very likely that the fish will win the battle between them. You are killing me, fish, the old man thought. But you have a right to. Never have I seen a greater, or more beautiful, or a calmer or more noble thing than you, brother. Come on and kill me. I do not care who kills who. (Hemingway 92) The way that Santiago regards the fish displays the great love that he feels for nature and the creatures on this earth.   Even as the battle continues on and he is weakened, he still does not feel any hatred for the fish.   As he says, â€Å"Fish, I love you and respect you very much. But I will kill you dead before this day ends† (Hemingway 54).   Even after he has defeated the fish, he does not let go of the love he feels for such a magnificent animal.   When sharks attack and take most of his prize, he feels as though he has sinned by taking such a wondrous creature’s life.   He experiences a profound sense of regret and sorrow. â€Å"They must have taken a quarter of him, and of the best meat. I wish it were a dream and that I had never hooked him. I am sorry about it, fish† (Hemingway 103).   This love provokes him to vow to fight the sharks and protect the fish as best as he could, even if it means his own death. Santiago’s love and dedication to both Manolin and the fish is an integral part of The Old Man and the Sea.   These relationships turn an otherwise tragic novel, into a tale of hope.   The boy and the old man are dedicated to each other and the reader has faith that through this love, Santiago will be able to overcome the devastating loss of his prize.   Manolin vows to never leave him again and dismisses the expectations placed upon him by his family.   The ending can be considered triumphant because through Santiago’s dedication, he was able to defeat the fish and still be able to return home to his beloved friend. WORKS CITED Hemingway, Ernest.   The Old Man and the Sea.   New York: Scribner, 1995.

Indigenous Music of Australia Essay

Australia is a society of many cultures from all over the world. The music of Australia’s indigenous people represents a wide variety of music styles created by the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures. The music styles range from contemporary to styles that are fused with European sounds. The music of these people has become an important part of the society and culture of the people even though the ceremonies may have changed. â€Å"The traditional forms include many aspects of performance and musical instrumentation which are unique to particular regions or Indigenous Australian groups; there are equally elements of musical tradition which are common or widespread through much of the Australian continent, and even beyond. † (â€Å"Indigenous Australian Music. † Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. 13 May 2007. 17 May 2007. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Indigenous_Australian_music) The Indigenous populations of Australia have learned from other travelers that have visited Australia for trade or other reasons. The colonization of Australia brought many changes to the way Aboriginal society functioned. It changed the land and how the people went about their daily lives. Before 1788 the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders inhabited Australia. In 1788 the Aboriginal people lived on mainland Australia and the Torres Strait Islanders lived on the islands between Australia and Papua New Guinea, in what is now called the Torres Strait (Dreamtime. net. au. Australian Museum. 17 May 2007. http://www. dreamtime. net. au/indigenous/index. cfm). Many of the Europeans that came to Australia misunderstood the Aboriginal culture and created policies that did not benefit the people. They worked against the people by creating policies that benefited the farmers who moved across the continent using up natural resources and exploiting the Aboriginal people for labor. The European colonists did not understand the way the native people used the land for food and spiritual balance, thus causing many problems. The Indigenous cultures of Australia are one of the oldest in the entire world. â€Å"We’ve been here a long, long time† ( Koori Mail. October 1996). Their ability to adapt over time has allowed them to last. The Aborigines talked of â€Å"Dreamtime† or â€Å"the Dreaming†, which was their version of a creation story. The Rainbow Serpent created the Australian world. As she moved back and forth along the land she created great rivers and from her body the tribes, birds, and animals of Australia emerged. The Aborigines took great pride in the land because they believe that they emerged from it. They believed the Great Ancestral spirits put the plants, animals, and people in their places according to the land forms and spirits surrounding them (FrogandToad’s Indigenous Australia. The Travel Around Company. 19 May 2007 http://indigenousaustralia. frogandtoad. com. au/cultural. html). By the time Europeans arrived to colonize Australia there were more than 700 Aboriginal tribes. Each tribe had their own unique traditions, language, and customs. Traditional music of Australians indigenous people gives great meaning to their lives. There were three distinct types of Aboriginal music. The first was used for sacred ceremonies. The second type of music is semi-scared and is sung by men, with the women dancing. This music was used for initiation. The third type of music was not sacred and was used for entertainment. This is the only kind of music that can be performed by any person at any time. Music was used throughout the Aboriginals lives to teach what must be known about their culture, about their place in it, and about its place in the world of nature and super nature. Aboriginals encouraged their children at a very young age to dance and sing about everyday tasks. (Telford, Hans W. â€Å"Australian Aboriginal Music. † Santa Clara University. 20 May, 2007. http://www. scu. edu. au/schools/sass/music/musicarchive/AusGeneral. html). When the girl or boy reaches puberty he or she learns about totemic plants and animals of the clan and the mythology of their group, also known as karma songs. Karma is the Aboriginal type of oral literature that tells a historical story of the people ( Indigenous Australian Music). These songs have specific melodic formulas that distinguish them from other tribe’s songs.. Because the stories come from oral tradition the music is learned my imitating elders and is passed without writing everything down. Before a man marries he learns more lively and fun songs that are entertainment for the tribe. When he marries and becomes a responsible tribe member he is to depend on the karma songs to keep him strong. The man matures by the knowledge he acquires through song and when he is older his on her is based partly on his mastery of the secret sacred songs of the tribe (Telford, Hans W. ). Some clans in Aboriginal Culture may share songs known as emeba, fjatpangarri, and manikay. These songs are directly tied to the story telling of Dreamtime, when the features of the land were created and named. When they sing the songs in the correct order the tribe could navigate vast distances. They relate the person who keeps the song with the land itself (Indigenous Australian Music). A traditional for of music is Bunggul. This style of music is known for its intense lyrics, and is usually stories about epic journeys. These stories continue or repeat after the music stops (Indigenous Australian Music). A death wail is also a very traditional music style in Aboriginal culture. It is a mourning lament performed in ritual fashion after the death of a family or tribe member. Roy Baker, a descendent of the Murawari tribe describes the death wail, â€Å"You hear the crying and the death wail at night,† he recalled, â€Å"it’s a real eerie, frightening sound to hear. Sad sound†¦ to hear them all crying. And then after the funeral, everything would go back to normal. And they’d smoke the houses out, you know, the old Aboriginal way. † Aboriginal Australians used the resources around them to make their instruments. Most of their instruments fall into the idiophone class. An idiophone instrument is made from resonating material that does not have to be tuned (Encarta World English Dictionary). Their instruments consisted of two separate parts, which are stuck together to make a percussive sound. There are no string instruments in their culture, but they did use a skinned drum type instrument and wind instrument. Idiophones were the most common types of instrument and the most basic. The first example is sticks. Each singer would hold a pair of wooden sticks and clap them together. They could also be shaken to make a rattling sound. Boomerang clapsticks also were used in the same way. Aboriginal Boomerang Clapsticks[pic] If there were no sticks, hand clapping or slapping various parts of the body were substitutes for a pair of sticks or clapsticks. A rattle usually accompanied songs. These rattles were made by holding bunches of seed ponds in ones hand. [pic] Seed rattle. The most well known of all the Aboriginal instruments is the didjeridu. The didjeridu is usually formed when termites hollow out a tree branch. The branches are usually cut to about 5 feet and are smoothed to make a suitable mouthpiece. When blown the didjeridu is a rich and complex sound. The function of the didjeridu is to provide a constant drone on a deep not, somewhere around D flat. The note is broken up in rhythmic patterns and accents by the use of the player’s tongue and cheeks. Constant air pressure s maintained by simultaneously blowing out through the mouth and breathing in through the nose, known as circle breathing. Great stamina is needed to play the didjeridu. [pic] [pic] Most contemporary styles of indigenous Australian music come from the fusion with European traditions. It also represents from the fusion with mainstream styles of music such as rock and country. Artists like The Deadlys give us an example of this using rock, country, and pop. Common traditional musical instruments such and the didjeridu and clapsticks are used to give a different feel to the music (Indigenous Australian Music). Overall, most ancestors stay true to their past roots of music. The remaining indigenous Aboriginal tribes still practice their culture and pass it down from generation to generation. The traditions have all remained the same even though European colonization changed the tribes forever. Even though there aren’t as many tribes remaining, the people of Australia keep their music alive in traditional and contemporary ways. Works Cited â€Å"Indigenous Australian Music. † Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. 13 May 2007. 17 May 2007. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Indigenous_Australian_music (Dreamtime. net. au. Australian Museum. 17 May 2007. http://www. dreamtime. net. au/indigenous/index. cfm Telford, Hans W. â€Å"Australian Aboriginal Music. † Santa Clara University. 20 May 2007. http://www. scu. edu. au/schools/sass/music/musicarchive/AusGeneral. html.

Discuss and explain the Jewish scope for resistance during the Essay

Discuss and explain the Jewish scope for resistance during the Holocaust - Essay Example Jews in every ghetto, labour camp and death camp established several strategies in order to carry out effective resistance despite having little and less effective weapons. However, with their limited resources, they had courage to obtain food and water under death threat and blocked Germans from exploiting them despite having weak military. The Holocaust came to an end after Allied forces came in Europe to fight against Germans for exploiting innocent Jews. Consequently, German forces could not withhold anymore because western Allied forces had very powerful weapons and military base, thus marking the end of World War II. This paper outlines various approaches undertaken by Jews to resist Nazi rule during the Holocaust. Although there was resistance through armed uprisings, some people in ghettos boycotted Nazi rule as a means of resistance. Jews defied Nazis rule and instead, they acted contrary to the rule as a means of resisting oppressive Germans. Since there were curfew rules that barred Jews from being in the streets from 7pm to 5 am, they would gather in one building to practice all their cultural practices like dancing, singing and having comedy in order to forget the ordeal they were undergoing through. Cultural practices were prohibited by the Nazi rule and whenever one was found practicing any cultural activity, they were killed mercilessly by gunshots. Additionally, Jewish children were denied the right to education by Nazi rule; however, in ghettos, Jews set up informal schools that would educate their children secretly. Furthermore, it was a crime for Jews to observe their rituals like dietary laws and they would be punished severely once found practicing it. In light to these oppressions, many Jews felt that it was time to fight for their liberty since Nazi rule had greatly overlooked their rights. They organized committees that were meant to mobilize people to retaliate against Nazis by boycotting their rules and fighting

Self evaluation Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Self evaluation - Personal Statement Example bout their favorite sport is a good enough time pass, plus there are people who indulge in sports simply to keep themselves physically as well as mentally fit and then there is the most common reason, which is to win the game. The outline will be evaluated to see that the contents used are strong enough to have an impact on the audience, positively or are the contents just providing people with the general knowledge, which more or less, everybody knows about and is the speaker has a way and techniques to ensnare and engage the audience or not. Hence, this evaluation will be done on delivery of speech, content of speech and goal. The outline gives an idea that the delivery on the speech will be good as the speaker has highlighted the main essence of the topic and even surge forward with the concept of nutrition and bodily health of sports person. However, if the speaker will include a real life incident of an ordinary person or quotation of a sports person and how sports has kept the particular athlete/person physical and mentally stable, then it will give delivery an appealing sound and will instantly attract the audience. Furthermore, another good aspect of the outline is that it illustrates that the writer have not only stick with the sports playing point of view, but also give an angle on the opinion of the spectators, who are not active participant of a sport. This spectator part can play crucial role as the audience who listened to the speech can somehow connect with the information. Moving to the content of the outline, on a basic level the primary requirements are fulfilled that is the inclusion of introduction, body and conclusion, however on closely looking at it the use of Monroe’s motivated sequence is not very clear and vaguely used. For instance, the first criteria for Monroe’s Motivated Sequence is attention getter, this step usually involves quoting a real life incident, sharing something humorous telling a dramatic tory or posing a question so

Network system , Cloud Networking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Network system , Cloud Networking - Essay Example It decreases latency or network load. However, this new concept has many challenges’ in future. This research paper presents the new concept of â€Å"Cloud Networking† and its design architecture, sustainability and security in the networking infrastructure. The primary goal of this report is to explain the challenges, solutions and need that are associated with cloud networking. Key words: Cloud Networking, sustainability, Design, Architecture and Infrastructure. I. INTRODUCTION Cloud computing is a very broad term and includes a variety of aspects and dimensions, which are very helpful in hosting a large number of applications and making them available to any device at any time [1]. Mostly it is used by business houses whether they are big, small or medium size. But the concept first originated back in the days when cloud computing was introduced by companies like Google, Yahoo, Amazon, etc. and now is used on a large scale in organizations like Dell, IBM, HP, Microso ft, and alike. The emergence of cloud networking has eliminated the concept of ‘silo computing’ where an application or software was of restricted use and available to only selected systems. A cloud networking system creates multiple layers and multi-tiered systems inside a cloud server, allowing for enhancement of cloud protection and security and application of complex software [2]. The report aims at understanding the development of cloud networking, its impact on the environment and how various organizations joined forces to formulate plans to protect the natural surroundings. II. DEVELOPMENT OF CLOUD NETWORKING There has been a paradigm shift in how computers are used to store, manage and retrieve data in an organization. The very concept of cloud computing has satisfied the uneven demands of users who wanted cheap computing resources which was able to record, store, retrieve and disseminate information. Cloud networking poses some new challenges when compared to c onventional OSI systems. Many new components and dimensions have been added to the use of computers, the internet is one of them. The cloud network now includes a layer of web applications, which is additional in comparison to traditional OSI systems [15]. Cloud networking works with IaaS (Infrastructure as a service) and SaaS (Software as a Service) while aiming at reducing consumption of energy and cost, leading to a green cloud. Though in early times, sleep mode was seen as a very effective way of decreasing energy usage, but now as servers are required to be online 24*7, expenditures made for maintaining them have increased by many folds; cloud networking is the solution for it. The concept behind the development of cloud networking is using Software as a Service (SaaS). There are a large number of servers in a data centre and several processors intensive software which requires more processing power, in which case they need more developed networks which are capable of handling big data storage capacity and transferring capability [20]. Figure 1: Software as a Service (SaaS) [15] A. ATTRIBUTES OF CLOUD NETWORKING Scalability: There are a large number of nodes that are involved in a cloud network. It is necessary that they must measure the rate of successful message and information delivery to the user

Evaluation of Save The Children Website Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Evaluation of Save The Children Website - Essay Example The paper describes the website "Save The Children" (www.savethechidlren.org). By analyzing the layout and functionality of the above mentioned website it can be seen as adequate in providing a pleasing interface for the viewer thereof. The landing page provides sufficient navigation options in its top level navigation menu, specifically that of the About Us, Donate, Sponsor, Gifts and so forth. Four main key areas are further highlighted within the main view or so called "above the fold", namely that of the Donate Now, Become A Sponsor, Join the Campaign, and Take Action respectively, with the balance of the landing page, and below the fold, providing both the latest news and developments as well as reporting upon the latest results and achievements of the organization and their efforts within this field. Specifically from a functional perspective the site seems adequate enough to enable the site visitor to navigate to any desired area in seeking information about the organization, the efforts within which they are active as well as areas where they, the site visitor, may become involved in. Specific to the subject of trafficking, and where children are exploited and exposed to this activity, there is no immediate reference provided within any of the main menu items on the landing page. Only upon searching, via the search functionality of the site that trafficking is returned within these search results. Therefore the issue of trafficking is not highlighted and does not seem to be prioritized within this website.

UNICEF Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

UNICEF - Essay Example UNICEF’s main aim is to provide humanitarian and developmental services to deprived children and women in third-world countries. The organization wants to help these children to survive and thrive from the time to their born till their adolescent years. It is also known to provide the most number of vaccines to third world nations. They basically strive to provide hygienic water and sanitation facilities, quality education and basic healthcare services to children. They want to protect boys and girls from exploitation, abuse, and chronic diseases and fight for their human rights. UNICEF is steadfast and dedicated to changing the lives of such deprived children of the world. Their selfless motives work towards their protection, prevention and development with the help of positive and sensible planning and supervision of policy results. UNICEF has established Millennium Developmental Goals (MDGs) to monitor child related issues globally. Their aim is to study the situation of children and women in different parts of the world, by collecting and analyzing data and work to resolve their issues by sensible tactics and methodologies. The collected data work as indicators. Then they are further disseminated and published as databases for authentic use and purposes. UNICEF is given funds, donations and grants by individuals, foundations, enterprises and the State, voluntarily (http://unicefinnovation.org/ ABOUT UNICEF). The organization has to rely on private donations and grants from governments to fulfill their mission. ... vernments contribute the most, to about two-thirds of UNICEF’s resources while the rest is contributed by private individuals through the National Committees. UNICEF aims to provide community-level services and amenities for the long-term developmental goals of children. It is also privileged to be awarded by the Nobel Peace Prize in 1965 and the Concord Prince of Asturias Award in the year 2006. UNICEF is actively operating in 190 countries around the world. They support for children’s rights through their country programmes and National Committees. They have their goals and achievements in each one of these countries. With head-quarters in New York and 200 operating offices in the other countries, their mission is collectively pursued with the help of host governments. There are seven regional offices which is available for any technical help that any of these country offices require. In fact there are only 9 countries and territories of the world where it is not acti vely operating. These include; Singapore, Monaco, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Mauritius, Malta, Cyprus, Brunei Darussalam and Bahamas. UNICEF’s New York headquarters is responsible for the management and administration of resources. Their main supply of resources is done from Copenhagen. These include basic items like vaccines, medicines, nutritional supplements, equipment for emergency shelter, food items, and educational materials. Their board of directors comprises of 36 Executive Members who continue to develop policies, approve strategies and supervise administrative and financial plans. The United Nations Economic and Social Council appoint government representatives to be a part of the UNICEF’s Executive Board. They are usually elected on a three-year term basis. The current Executive Director

Noise standard Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Noise standard - Essay Example s of exposure that represent conditions under which it is believed that nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed without adverse effect on their ability to hear and understand normal speech. Their TLV publications can be accessed through purchase since their publications have copyrights. ACGIH-TLVs do not have a legal force in USA; they are only recommendations/ guides and not regulatory limits due to individual susceptibility, hence ACGIH is not a standard setting body. Regulatory bodies view ACGIH’s guidelines as an expression of scientific opinion. ACGIH has several committees set up that decides which substance is to be selected for study and votes once a year on action terms. Each substance / element is selected based upon its availability, relevance and scientific data. ACGIH has established exposure guidelines for occupational exposure to noise in their Threshold Limit Values (TLVs), 85 dBA PEL with a 3 dBA exchange rate. ACGIH guidelines are used to measure workpla ce and personal noise exposure limits, assess risk of hearing loss, determine the need for hearing conservation program and identifying practical methods of controlling noise exposures. As compared to ACGIH’s guidelines, Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) a part of the USA’s Department of Labor (USDOL) publish Permissible Exposure Limits (PEL). PEL are regulatory limits enforced on all employers. These PELs were initially based on ACGIH TLVs in 1971. If OSHA determines the need for a specific standard it calls for advisory committees (ad hoc or standing) to develop recommendations. OSHA requires that when workplace exposures exceed 100% of the PEL i.e. exposure exceed 90dBA, feasible engineering or administrative controls must be deployed to reduce noise levels. Engineering control includes redesigning space and operations to reduce noise at source, transmission path or at receivers end. Administrative controls include scheduling and controlling the level of exposure

Ancient Near Eastern Thought And The Old Testament Essay Example for Free

Ancient Near Eastern Thought And The Old Testament Essay The opening chapter begins by orienting the reader to the idea of comparative study, or the area of study that strives to understand things within their broader cultural context. In the case of this book, the goal is to understand the Old Testament within the context of the Ancient Near Eastern milieu. Walton explains that over the years there has been much debate on the issue of comparative study and the way in which it is to be exercised. Scholars, always biased by their presuppositions, tend to enter the argument negating the importance of the Old Testament on the  one side, or defending the inerrancy of Scripture so vehemently that the cultural context is lost. Walton poses a better way, namely, accepting the study of the Ancient Near Eastern cultures as important and academic in their own right while attempting to comprehend the Old Testament in light of what modern scholarship is learning about the ancient world. Studies of this time period often center around who borrowed what literature from whom, but Walton insists that this is not the main issue that ought to be dealt with. Rather, studies of the literature and literary genres of the ANE should assist in the broader understanding of the society. Walton observes several areas that the text will deal with in further details. He first puts emphasis on appreciating the literary genres and how they function as a foundation to any quest into comparative studies. In order to understand the Old Testament fully, one must know how the genres were written and how they are to be interpreted within their cultural context. Secondly, Walton notes religious practices and the necessity of understanding them clearly. Ritual sacrifices, priests, and ceremonial cleanliness are things that are foreign to readers in a modern context. Additionally, a crucial part of understanding the Old Testament is understanding not only the practices of the Israelites, but the practices of the other people groups that made up the ANE. Finally, it is important to understand the theology of a people group and the broader views of God and the gods within the ANE in order to interpret the text well. Walton closes the first chapter by pointing out that comparative studies assists study of the Bible in at least four major areas: (1) history of the ANE, (2) archeological understanding of the lifestyle, (3) literature, and (4) language. CHAPTER 2 Chapter two deals with the different ways in which comparative studies are used within current scholarship. Walton first attends to the ways in which comparative studies are being utilized within critical scholarship. As additional information is unearthed about the ANE, many of the ideas once held in critical scholarship have been challenged. Previous assumptions about texts and thoughts, primarily based on evolution, are being reconsidered. Critical scholarship has a history of assuming that critical thought and religious practice had simple beginnings and have evolved through time. Research is showing these assumptions in source criticism,  reaction criticism, and issues of dating to be incorrect in light of the data. Though, as Walton notes, there has been some resistance to comparative studies within the circles of critical scholarship, most of the data being provided is being accepted and studied at greater length. Walton also notes the use of comparative studies in polemics and dismisses such uses due to the fact that the text is not approached in a scholarly manner. Scholars of a more conservative persuasion, primarily Evangelicals, and others termed confessional scholars by Walton, have had a more difficult time adopting comparative studies. As further information has been gathered about the relation of the Pentateuch to ANE literature and as new data has arisen through archeology, confessional scholars have felt their longstanding foundations threatened, which has caused their hesitancy to fully embrace comparative studies. Many feel that maintaining the Bibles unique status among other ANE literature is of supreme importance and continue to argue that comparative studies degrades the inspiration of the text thus making Gods word subject to mans interpretation. Walton closes the chapter by proposing an integrated approach including critical analysis to better understand the history of the Bible, unbiased and educated defense of the biblical text, and solid exegesis that guards the reader from understanding the text outside of its context. Walton argues that the field of comparative studies must be important not only to serious scholars, but also to anyone committed to truly knowing and understanding the Word of God. CHAPTER 3 Chapter three is dedicated to a brief overview of the literary styles of the ANE and gives examples of the styles from some of the primary people groups. The discussion begins with myth, which was one of the primary ways that ancient civilizations explained their present reality. Short examples from several cultures are given and include many parallels to the Biblical stories such as the creation account and the flood. Others bear little resemblance to the Bible such as the stories of the fighting gods of Akkadian myths. Next are literary texts and epics which tell the stories of the kings of different lands, their struggles to power, and their exploits while ruling. The most famous is the Gilgamesh epic, which follows Gilgamesh on his journey to find immortality. The third literary type is ritual texts  which, as the name says, follow the rituals of the people groups of the ancient world. Rituals were important as they helped humans communicate with and persuade the gods. Fourth, Walton deals with divination and incantation texts which were used to divine the meanings of omens, undo evil spells, and ward off bad spirits. These are dealt with at length later in the book. Fifth, he explains the significance of the use of letters exchanged between kings gives the modern day reader noteworthy information about the culture of the past. Walton then moves to royal inscriptions which were recordings ordered by kings. They could contain items such as details on how a building was to be constructed, conquests, details of how to handle their succession, and other various accomplishments and instructions. In a similar vein are annals and chronicles which detailed the succession of rulers through the history of an empire, coupled with their important victories in war. Treaties were another piece of literature that was used to establish rules between kings and rulers of different lands. The next section deals with government and points out law collections and legal documents as important literary devices. While law collections detail the ways in which society was to run and how people were to behave, legal documents dealt with contracts for marriages, children, family estates, and court rulings. Religious literature was also common in the Ancient Near East. Psalms and hymns were ways to give adoration to the gods so that they would be pleased and provide for the people. Wisdom literature contained details about how to make good choices, but also contained laments and writings concerning ethics. Prophetic writing was another important communication because it contained communication from the gods which was a vital part of the life of the ancient cities. Kings sought answers to their problems from the gods and they received them through the prophets. These prophesies were often recorded. Walton closes the chapter by noting various miscellaneous writings as well as arc hives, which were groups of literature often found together which contained all sorts of different information. CHAPTER 4 Chapter four opens the third section of the book which is an overview of the religious views of the ANE. In order to fully understand the Old Testament and the interactions of the Hebrew people with God, and other false gods, it is important to understand how the religious system worked.  Throughout the chapter Walton shows how other empires worshiped and compares those beliefs to beliefs held by Israel. First and foremost, the other people groups of the ANE were polytheistic and therefore, the idea of one God was odd in itself. Add to this the fact that the Israelite God was not made and had simply always been, and the oddities became significantly greater. Not only was the norm polytheistic, but there were great stories about how the gods came to be, their battles with one another, their failures, and their flaws. The gods were defined by the things that they did. Earlier chapters note the fact that the culture of this time period was highly focused on function. Again, due to the polytheism, the gods functioned as a team of sorts. The God of the Bible is, indeed, three in one, but nonetheless one God who is all powerful. The Old Testament does make mention of a council that God used to make decisions, but this is altogether different from the unstable group of random gods of other people groups which were completely separate, with different gifts and skills, and with significant flaws. Walton then turns to the roles that the gods played in the cosmos as well as their attributes. Whereas Yahweh is completely outside of the cosmos, the gods of the ANE were associated with elements of the cosmos. So while Yahweh is the creator of the sun, the moon, and the waters, the gods of other polytheistic religions actually were one with those elements. They had no life or meaning independent from those elements. For instance, the god of the seas controlled the sea and was the sea itself. There was no distinction and no separation as with the God of the Israelites. The attributes of the gods were in some ways similar to Yahweh, but were altogether different in others. The most notable difference is the fact that while Yahweh is completely other, the gods were inherently human in their characteristics. They argued with one another, they needed to be flattered with prayers that did not necessarily communicate their true nature, they were limited in their geographic location, they procreated, and they failed. People of the ANE had attributed to the gods of their myths the same characteristics that they saw in their everyday lives. The main difference between the gods and humans was that the gods were simply stronger. All other characteristics were intrinsically human. This is a far cry from the God of the Bible who is holy, not bound by anything, and never fails. The chapter closes by dealing with a very important part of the  makeup of the gods, their divine attributes. In Evangelical circles God is not simply described as being loving. Rather, He is love itself. God does not simply rule in a just way, he is the epitome of justice. The God of the Old Testament is perfection in every area of everything. There is no flaw or limitation in him. His wisdom, love, justice, and mercy are not only perfect in and of themselves, but God is those things. The gods of the ANE were significantly different in that the attributes that they had were directly linked to their actions. There were no inherent attributes in them, or as Walton says, deity is as deity does. The duties that each god had were the attributes that they carried. CHAPTER 5 Chapter five is dedicated to the understanding of the role of the temple and the accompanying rituals in the ANE. Walton first deals with the role that the temple played. Temples were created not primarily for worship of the gods, but were the places where the gods resided while on earth. This was a sacred space that was to be free from all profanity and reserved for the rest and worship of that god. Each temple contained an idol, like a plaque or a statue. This statue was not simply a rendering; the commonly held view was that the god actually inhabited the idol in some way without actually becoming the idol. Because of this, the ancients believed that the creation of the idol was supernaturally overseen and organized by that specific god so that the idol would meet its expectations. This process was familiar to the Old Testament prophets and they prophesied against the idols and false gods. Attached to the temple was at least one ziggurat, which was a structure that encased a stair way which served as a portal for the god from the heavenly realm into the earthly temple. These were large structures and this was probably what Moses was referring to when he spoke of the tower of Babel in Genesis. So in opposition to common Sunday school teaching, the tower of Babel was not meant to reach to the heavens, but was a portal meant to bring heaven to earth. The temple was the most important structure in ancient culture. It was the center of everything and, due to the fact that the god inhabited the temple, was the source of all things good. Temples were viewed as the center of the cosmos in the ancient world. Walton observes that in this area, the Bible and ancient myths agree in that the presence of the god, or Yahweh in the case of the Bible, was what made the  space important. He claims that the Garden of Eden was not a literal geographic place on earth, rather it was a place in the cosmos where God dwelt. The presence of God was what made Eden special. The same goes for the temples of the ancients. The presence of the gods made them the focal point of life. Not only was the temple the central point of worship, but also of law, the wealth of the city, and the social activities of the people. The focal point of daily activities was the temple. That God would inhabit the tabernacle, or the temple, therefore, makes perfect sense in the culture of the ANE. Solomons temple is used as the focal point of the city, where God dwelt and where worship was given. Here, again, the ancient myths and the Bible agree. Harvest, weather, health, wealth, and victory in battle, among other things, were all controlled by the gods in the ANE. Due to this fact, the rituals that were performed for the gods in the temple were important to the livelihood of the people. The gods had to be appeased and the forces of evil and chaos needed to be held at bay. Rituals, therefore, were the way in which humans interacted with the gods to make sure that they were happy and that the cosmos was in balance. Blood sacrifices were not unique to the Israelites, but were a common trend of the day. However, unlike the other tribes of the ANE, the Israelites did not use incantations. Furthermore, while faith in God was of primary concern for the Israelites, action and involvement in the cult of the temple were of paramount importance. CHAPTER 6 In the midst of everything that was happening in and around the temple, the way in which the common people of the land practiced religion was different. The contrast between the religion of the state and the religion of the common people is the focus of this chapter. Religion in the city environment is handled first. As mentioned in previous chapters, the gods were to be served, taken care of, and appeased. For these reasons, the idols mentioned in chapter five were cared for just as one might take care of a new born baby. They were woken, fed, pampered, and put to bed at night. The problem was that there was no way to know if the people were, indeed, pleasing the god. Without any revelation there was no way to know if the practices were actually making any difference in the temperament of the god. Each god was assigned roles and responsibilities, and each one, in turn, delegated their responsibilities back to the people. For instance, a certain god might be in charge of keeping justice, but those responsibilities were meted out to the king. However, in the midst of all of this service to the gods, the gods were prone to be temperamental. Gods would change their minds and moods often. Diviners might offer solutions like giving more money or upgrading the temple, but again, without revelation the gods were unknowable and this kept the ancient people always guessing and attempting new tactics to change their situations. Yahweh stood in stark contrast to the gods of the polytheistic pantheon. God has no need of anything from man. He is not contained. All of his choices are perfect and right. What is most important, however, is the fact that He communicated with his people so that they were fully aware of what he expected and in order that they might know the consequences for their actions. The religion of the common people was significantly different however. Whereas the temple and the workings of the state were dedicated to one of the higher and more powerful gods, the common people had individual gods, lower on the polyth eistic totem pole, that they worshiped and attempted to appease. Usually devotion to these gods was passed down from generation to generation. Abrahams initial communication with and faith in God, before the Hebrews were a people, fit the idea of a personal god. The primary goal of having a personal god was to bring the family social success, stature, and wealth. The relationship with these gods was different from he relationship that Abraham had with Yahweh. Just as with the state, there was no real heart-connect with the god, no real desire to know him and be like him. The goal was to keep the god happy so that the family would reap the benefits. This attitude presented itself in the weak prayer life of the people. When a family’s personal god was not doing the things that caused their family success, the family was looked down upon in society. It was clear that the family was doing something wrong that was not satisfying the demands of the god. The emphasis was not on the wrongdoing, but on the view society held of your family. Prayers and ritual acts to please the god focused on restoration of respect in the town, not restoration of a relationship with the god. Ethics and morals were also tightly bound to the gods and the balance of society. There were not ethical norms as there are in the modern context. Everything revolved around the gods and what they wanted. Because of the idea of continuity among all  of the realms, morals were not necessarily important. Whatever it took to keep society orderly and balanced was what took priority. So, if orgies or other sexual actions pleased the gods and kept things in order, then it was perfectly acceptable. There was no sense that things of this nature might be considered immoral. These absolutes can only be found in a God who guides one to moral absolutes and makes clear what is morally right and wrong. This is what God did as he revealed himself to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob orally, and how he set up guidelines with the nation of Israel at Mt. Sinai. God does what the artificial gods of the pagans could not do. He revealed himself so that the Israelites could know his will and follow it. He committed to them in a covenant relationship and taught them how to live within that relationship. He showed them how to strive for holiness, by imitating him, an idea that was otherwise nonexistent. He showed them how to have the best possible life, and ultimately, developed a relationship with them personally. CHAPTER 7 Chapter seven is the first chapter in the fourth part of the book, which is dedicated to the cosmos. The seventh chapter in particular deals with how the people of the ANE viewed the makeup of the cosmos. Whereas, due to science and exploration, people in modern times understand that the earth is round and that it travels around the sun while spinning on its own axis, the views of how the cosmos functioned were significantly different in the ANE. Understanding the ancient view of cosmological geography is vital in comprehending the worldview of the ANE. Many of the people groups of the ANE understood the cosmos to be layered. The Earth was the middle layer with heaven above and the netherworld below. The earth was thought to stand still and the sun was thought to travel on a track up on one side of the earth, across the sky, and down into the netherworld in the evening. In some myth systems it was believed that the sky, which was believed to be solid, was supported by mountains at the edges of the earth, while yet other traditions claimed that the earth was supported by giant columns. In addition, ANE myths believed that the sky held the waters back and that when precipitation came, the water was falling through cracks or holes in the sky layer. It is important to note that the world of the ANE was primarily concerned about function over mere existence. Therefore, the  cosmos had no importance in and of itself, but only within the context of the gods using nature to accomplish their desires and dole out their punishments. Regardless of the different views held within the ancient tribes, they all viewed the area that they inhabited as the center of the cosmos. Walton shows that this view about the makeup up of the cosmos was held by the Israelites as well. We have no reason to believe that the modern view of the cosmos was held by the Israelites. Throughout the Old Testament we see references that show that the Israelites held to the common views of the cosmos first and foremost because that was the normal view in those days, but also because God never revealed to them any other way by which to understand the cosmos. CHAPTER 8 Chapter eight handles the important issues of the origin and order of the cosmos. Gaining knowledge about the origin of the world gives excellent insight into the creation account and shows the student of the Bible the important value that God places on humans. As mentioned earlier it is necessary to understand that the culture of the ANE valued function over existence. For something to merely exist was not nearly as important as the function of that thing. This idea has significant repercussions when it comes to the study of cosmogony. Moderns often read the creation account and assume that God was calling things into existence, but this view would not have made much sense to anyone writing in the ANE. It would have been a foreign idea because to simply bring something into existence was of little consequence. Creation was more focused on a purpose than it was on making an object available. One of the first and most important steps in the making functional process was the naming of things, which fits nicely into the creation account of the Bible. God creates and names. This naming process kick starts that object’s function. Walton makes some very interesting points when it comes to the Biblical account of creation. He says that it should be understood, from the text, that the account in the first chapter of Genesis is not one of God creating things that did not exist, but bringing order and function to those things. The reader can notice that Genesis 1never claims that there was nothing. It simply communicates that the earth was without form; it had no order or function. He mentions that on days one through three God does not simply create light,  water and vegetation, but that he was bringing function to those things by giving light the function of time-keeping, water the function of the climate, and vegetation the function of providing food for man and animal s. Therefore, unlike the gods of the other tribes, the God of the Bible gives function and destiny to all things from the very beginning. He is not trying to manage the cosmos and the functions therein, he has already created and set them in motion with specific purpose. His initial purposes for all things cannot be changed and need no management. The chapter closes by explaining the temple as a depiction of the cosmos. This idea is touched on in chapter five and is reiterated here. The place of rest for the gods was their temple. When everything was in order they were able to relax in their sacred space. God, however, is bigger than anything that he has created and uses the earth as his footstool. The Temple of Yahweh was modeled after the cosmos to show this relationship. CHAPTER 9 Literature, religion, and the cosmos have all been dealt with thus far. Now Walton turns to how people functioned and were understood in the context of the ANE. The first step, which is the focus of chapter nine, is to understand how people thought about the past and recorded history. Any conversation about humans naturally begins with their origins. The biblical account of the creation of humans is unique from the myths of the ANE in several ways. First is the fact that the Genesis account sets up Adam and Eve as the sole couple from which all other humans come, known as monogenesis. In other myths, humans are made in more of a group setting, polygenesis, where there is no singular couple from which all human life stems. Secondly is the difference in substance from which humans are created. The biblical account notes that God used the dust of the ground to create Adam and that He breathed life into his nostrils, whereas other matter, including clay and body parts from conquered gods , were used in other myths. The conversation then moves from how humans were made to what pieces or parts they actually contain. Walton notes that there remains disagreement as to whether humans are a unified whole or if they are separated somehow by body, mind, and spirit. Walton notes that due to language barriers, the words describing the human makeup from the ANE are difficult to translate and explain. The Egyptians used several terms to  describe how humans were made. Ka was the natural character of a person based on their ties to their lineage. Ba was the way in which they displayed themselves to society, similar to a reputation. Akh was the soul or spirit of a person that was said to live on after death. The Israelites, on the other hand, used different terms. Perhaps, due to the aforementioned language issues, it is best to quote Walton in this explanation. He says that, nephesh is related to awareness and perception while ruah is related to consciousness and vitality. Finally, the chapter deals with the role of humans in the cosmos. There is a very important distinction to be made in this area between the views of the Egyptians, Akkadians, and Sumarians and the views of the Israelites. The former saw the gods as the center of the cosmos and humans as an unimportant byproduct to assist the gods and appease them, whereas the latter saw their role as priests created to serve God. The Bible gives an important role to humans as the pinnacle of Gods creation, and this idea is unique in the ANE. CHAPTER 10 Chapter ten addresses the recording of history and the mindset that drove the guidelines that the people of the ANE followed in recording history. Furthermore, the chapter shows what that set of guidelines communicates about the mindset of the recorders. As this text has clearly stated, the mindset of the people of the ANE was focused around the gods. The modern mindset is one that focuses on the things that people can see and experience. Modern history is based on physical facts. The cognitive environment of the ANE was such that natural proof or fact was not the main concern. The ancient culture was focused on the gods and what means had been employed to please and serve the gods. Deity was the focal point of historiography. Furthermore, the goals of history were different than the goals of a modern-day journalist. While the journalist of today is concerned about facts and events, the ancients were concerned about the meaning of those events. Due to the fact that everything that happened was tied to the gods in some way, history was the result of what was happening in the supernatural world. These happenings, of course, were of primary importance, so little significance was placed on the events themselves. Rather, the emphasis was on deciphering what information these  events were communicating about the actions of the gods. The way in which events of history worked together and the purpose behind them was also significant. There was a sense of an underlying through-line beneath the surface of every event in history. A good example of this mindset would be the way in which Christians believe that amidst all of the surface things in life, God is working out his perfect will. What happened in each event was not nearly as important as how that event may have furthered a larger piece of the narrative of life. The differences in mindset between the ancients and moderns continue in the area of explaining time. Today most people think of time as linear; the present is now, the past behind, and the future ahead. This was not the normative view of time in the ANE. It was as if the person standing on the time line were turned around, looking into the past with the future behind them. Their view of the past and how it affected the future was most important. The final portion of the chapter focuses on the necessity of understanding the form in which history was written in order to fully realize the meaning of the history itself. Often writers were not necessarily attempting to provide legitimate history telling in their narratives. Because of this, the facts leading up to the conclusion may or may not be accurate because there was no need for them to be so. Much narrative was fiction. Therefore, to understand the writings of the ANE, one must realize that narrative is not primarily concerned about the events, as mentioned above, but on the outcomes, which affects ones ability to glean truth-telling history from the narrative writings. Additionally, the source of the literature, who it promotes, and the audience it was intended for all play an important role in attempting to understand the history of the times. These values, as Walton calls them, play a significant role in how ancient history is to be interpreted. The aforementioned points affect the way in which the Old Testament is read and understood. The history that is recorded in the Old Testament, though it is divinely inspired, must still be understood in the context in which it was written, taking into consideration the values, writers, intended audience, poetics, and importance of deity. CHAPTER 11 Chapter eleven moves to the next step by considering how people lived their day to day lives. Divination, mentioned briefly in other chapters, is  now fully explained. Divination was the attempt to try to deduce from a god the future, or to gain a better comprehension of that god. There were two types of divination, inspired and deductive. Inspired divination involved a message from the gods through a human messenger, while deductive divination included a message from the gods sent through natural means like events or weather. People who engaged in this process were known by different names depending on the type of divination they practiced and the type of omens they used. Inspired messages often came through prophets and dreams. Official prophets were paid and trained by the king to serve as intermediaries between him and the gods. Others, outside of the kings employ that received random messages were known as informal prophets. Dreams generally came to people by happenstance, and because there was so much to decipher, there was much written in the area of dream interpretation. Deductive divination was a reading of signs and events done by trained people. Signs or omens might be found in the sky, through the weather, the stars, the waters, organs of dead animals, lot casting, and other phenomena in nature. Attempting to divine answers about the future helped people feel a sense of control and normalcy. The Bible employs inspired divination as God speaks through the prophets and assists Daniel and Joseph, among others, to interpret dreams. However, the reading of others signs and omens, as in deductive divination, are scolded as evil by the Old Testament. Magic was also practiced in the ANE. Where divination discovered different meanings or problems, magic was able to use power to fix those problems. Incantations and rituals were used to appease the anger of the gods, to eliminate the evil spirits, to cleanse the affected home or space, and to cleanse the effected person from those evil spirits so that they could continue to function as normal. Magicians, known as Asipu were elevated to a high place, similar to a priest, and were focused on discovering and eliminating bad spirits. The Asu used herbs and other natural remedies to aid in the effect of the incantations. Next, the text explains the specific goals of divination. First and foremost, the goal was to legitimize the king and give him guidance. Omens were not set in stone, but rather, were predictions and warnings. If a good omen was found, that didnt necessarily guarantee that the good fortune would come to pass, and vice versa. A main point in understanding the importance of divination was the  issue of certainty. One would think that after several failed attempts to predict the future, the practice would lose its validity. However, this was not the common mindset. Rather than perfect prediction of the future, divination should be understood more along the lines of, â€Å"draw[ing] a particular issue to ones attention. (269) The chapter ends by quickly dealing with the test of a true prophet given in Deuteronomy 18. If a prophesy is off or does not come true, can that prophet immediately be discredited? Walton concludes that based on several texts, prophets were given an opportunity to show their trustworthiness, but if they continued to prove that their words were not from God, they were disregarded. CHAPTER 12 Chapter twelve delves further into how the importance of the city partners with life and purpose of the king. Earlier chapters noted that the people who lived outside of the cities practiced religion in different ways. Within the ANE cultures, living outside of the city or being a nomad was frowned upon. Life in the city was the best life in which to be engaged. The Mesopotamians as well as the Egyptians believed that cities were created by the gods, before humans, as a tie to the past. Just as in every other aspect of life in the ANE, the objectives of both the city and the king were to please the gods. Cities were the epicenter of the world; they were a place where people lived and did business, but ultimately where the temples were. Each city had its own temple that was dedicated to a specific god. The importance of the city was somewhat the same for the Israelites. Gods home on earth was the temple, and the temple was located in the city of Jerusalem. The difference, however, was that there was only one temple for the Israelites, and that temple was in one city. Kings were the rulers of the time, thus directly tied to the cities, and therefore kingship played a very important role in religious practice. Kings were thought to have been chosen by the gods and were always attempting to show that the gods approved of them as king. They were the mediators between the gods and the people who lived under their rule. It was said that they had access to the gods and their plans in a way that no other person did. The view of king was so high in Egypt that he was seen as divine. The king had many responsibilities in regard to the upkeep of the city, one of the most important being the institution of justice. But it was also the kings responsibility to lead  the charge in appeasing the gods so that their land would be safe and overflow with blessing. Again, these ideas are very similar to Hebrew kingship. God did choose a king and he gave them authority to speak on His behalf. Some pose that the OT is anti-king, but it is best to take from the text that God had always planned for a king. He was disgusted that the people did not want him to rule over them and that they wanted a king on their time line. And, of course, from the line of King David comes the ultimate king, the Messiah. CHAPTER 13 Chapter thirteen unpacks even more about how the people of the ANE lived, specifically how their laws were enforced, how wisdom was passed down, their views of justice, and how justice and ethics were related. The first section focuses on the treatises: medical, divinatory, and legal. These writings were wisdom passed down from past decisions made to offer guidance to the next set of people who would be making the decisions. Medical personnel could find remedies that worked, diviners could better know how to interpret an omen, and the king would know hold justice might have been handled prior to his time. These treatises were a series of if statements that explained certain situations and how to handle them. An example might be, â€Å"if a man steals something, cut off his hand.† It is important to note that there was not necessarily a set group of laws, rather, these treatises, along with wisdom literature, were used to create the norms of justice based on what had worked in the past. These pieces of literature served to legitimize the king. The Book of the Covenant is the Israelite writing that most closely resembles this type of literature. Wisdom literature from Egypt and Mesopotamia also played an important role in keeping societal order, but in a different fashion. Wisdom from such literature was meant to foresee potential problems and develop ways to alter the behavior in society so that potential problems would not present themselves. Walton explains that law, as we understand it today, was not a part of the culture of the ANE. There was not a list of rules written down that people used to regulate the way in which they lived. Rather, the state functioned based on personal ideas of fairness, wisdom from kings past, and the king at the present time. The goals were always balance and order in society and in the cosmos. Ergo, as the gods delivered  their responsibilities down through the kings, the kings were held responsible for keeping order in society by handling the judicial responsibilities entrusted to him by the gods. As mentioned in the section on morals and ethics, the gods were primarily concerned about social order, and the personal morality of people was not specifically important. The chapter closes by comparing the way in which people outside of Israel tried to live and how the Hebrews were guided by God to live. While the pagan tribes were focused on conforming to societal expectations, honoring the king, and pleasing the gods, Yahweh had revealed himself to Israel and had given details through the Ten Commandments and the covenant about how to live a holy life. While the pagan communities continued to try and determine a right way to live by waiting for answers from mute gods, the Israelites had heard from the Almighty and were trying to obey the details of the covenant agreement. CHAPTER 14 Having dealt with the ideas of how life began, the importance of familial heritage, and the ways in which life functioned in the day-to-day of the ANE, the final chapter of the book focuses on how future life on earth and the afterlife were viewed in the ANE. The idea of a better life in the future was foreign to the ANE mindset. The focus was not to make a better life for oneself, but to continue the legacy of the family name. Having an heir who would take care of the family business and continue the worship of the family’s gods was vital. Regardless of their situation, there was no savior coming to make things better. Israel, on the other hand, had the hope of the Messiah, which many misunderstood to be an earthly king who would come to free them from bondage and return them to their place of stature as in the days of David. The afterlife was, except for a failed weighing of the heart in Egyptian thought, generally not believed to be a place of punishment. The Egyptians believed that the ba and the ka were separated from the body at death, and that if the correct processes involved in burial were practiced, they would be enabled to reconnect with those pieces. In Mesopotamia, just as the future of life was strongly tied to the idea of family and community, so was the afterlife. The worst thing that could happen to a dead person was improper burial which would cut them off from the family and relegate them to a life alone.  Additionally, those who did not receive a proper burial were thought to be potentially dangerous spirits. It was common practice that those still alive from the family would care for those dead by providing water libations, providing left-over food from the table, and holding meals in honor of their ancestors. Specially trained men would assist them in communicating with the deceased. The netherworld is the name that was consistently used for the afterlife. Humans, aside from kings who were given the opportunity to enter into heaven with the gods, all ended up here. There are multiple stories about the process that one might take in order to gain access to the netherworld, but all eventually ended up here. This is never indicated as a place of torment, but just a plain and boring existence hopefully in community with their ancestors. The Israelite idea of Sheol, which is mentioned in the Old Testament, is not to be understood as hell either. Walton indicates that there is no text that supports the interpretation that Sheol is to be understood in this fashion. POSTSCRIPT In the postscript, Walton reminds the reader of the importance of comparative studies and how vital it is to understand the Old Testament within its cognitive environment. He admits that he has not created the perfect text on the subject, but that one of his goals was to try and further develop the idea of comparative studies in a more complete manner where others have shied to the safe side and not tackled a work such as this. The second goal was to show that the Israelites shared in the cognitive environment of the ANE, which this reader believes he did very well. The author notes that the literature involved in the study of the ANE must be connected to the culture in which it was written and understood in light of it. The final portion shows the latter to be true by summarizing the main areas of thought and the similarities and differences between Israel and the other nations. All believed that the source of human beings was the gods, but only Israel believed in the creation of an original man and woman from whom all other people came. All attempted to please their gods, but only Israel had received revelation that communicated what Yahweh was thinking and what he expected. All were under the rule of a higher power, for Israel it was their upholding of the covenant while for the others it was submission to the king and the gods that had instituted his  rule. While social norms and literature passed down from old kings drove behavior in most people of the ANE, the revelation from God at Sinai gave the Hebrew people a guide for how to live. While all others had no hope of anything good in the future nor anything exciting in the afterlife, the Israelites were given the promise of a king who would come through David whose throne would last forever. Walton ends the text with a final statement that is worth repeating in this summary. He concludes that all of the information proposed within the text should be used to guard against a facile or uninformed imposition of our own cognitive environment on the texts of ancient Israel, which is all too typical in confessional circles. May all confessional readers of Gods word strive to understand his revelation as best as possible so that we might know and discern the perfect will of the one, true God. WORKS CITED Walton, John H.. Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2006.

Ontological or Epistemological Organisational Structure

Ontological or Epistemological Organisational Structure Organizations Structure: Modern / Symbolic and Post- Modern perspectives There are many different ways at looking at organizations, with each way producing a different insight, knowledge, and perspective. Depending on the ontological as well epistemological assumptions, different theories and perspectives may seem to apply better. The essay will focus on the similarities and differences between the theories through the models of social structure in an organization. From the philosophical ontological point of view, the modernist sees the material and social world as consisting of structures that exist, regardless of individual awareness. For example, the hierarchy of an organization is regarded as a social fact even if people are not aware of it. â€Å"Organizations †¦ should work like machines, using people, resources, as their parts. With the key design of building â€Å"the best† machines to keep organizations productive.† (Han van Diest. 2008) As such, the modernist approach to an organization can be considered as a well designed, structured entity. Operating organizational success is considered to be the result of well-organized systems that keep people / machines busy and costs under control. (Han van Diest. 2008) On the other end of the spectrum, the postmodernist would argue that the social world external to individual support is made up of nothing more than mere names, concepts and labels which are then used to form a structured reality. (Burrell and Morgan 1979) Supporters of the postmodernist argue that organizations are ‘imagined entities. â€Å"A core idea in postmodernism is that we are always making sense of our omniscient reality through a pair of imaginative glasses glasses based on such factors as our present desire in a given situation, our past experiences, our values and culture, our understanding of what is real, and so forth. It is never possible to take the glasses off altogether and view the world impartially.† (Inkeles A. 1983.) Taking a more balanced stand in the spectrum, a symbolic interpretive perception would be that social reality is created through communicative interaction between groups of people. Social reality is not a reality or set of facts existing prior to human activity. We create our social world through our language, symbols and behavioral actions. (Steven R Corman, Marshall Scott Poole 2000) As expressive forms representative of human consciousness, organizations are understood and analyzed not mainly in economic or material terms but in terms of their expressive ideas and symbolism. (Smircich 1983: 347-8). (Hatch, Mary J. and Cunliffe, Ann L., 2006) Structure of an Organization: While defining an organization from nuts and bolts point of view such as objects, buildings and elements, one of the key aims of a modernist perspective is to measure the organizational social structure to find out how to improve and contrive the ideal organization. (Hatch, Mary J. and Cunliffe, Ann L., 2006) Through research and past studies of various organizations, it was found that there is a strong relationship between the internal/external environment and the social structure of an organization in both a cross-tabulated or correlated way. Influences may include the size or bureaucratic structure of the organization. (Lex Donaldson 2001). The organizational environment has a direct effect on organizational structure, such that unstable environment produce an organic structure system that can react and adapt more quickly, while in the opposite scenario, produces a mechanistic system. The better the match, the higher the effectiveness of the organization. (e.g., Burns Stalker, 1961; Pennings,1975). (Shmuel Ellis, Tamar Almor, Oded Shenkar 2002) The modernist also views the organization through its social structuration. As routines, habits and rules are developed through the mutual interaction and influences between the workers and organization, a structural system is created, re-created and mediated within the organizationa. Realizing that the agency and its structures are both conditions and outcomes of the actions of human action, social relations and practices within the organization (Cohen, 1989, Giddens, 1984), social structure is therefore viewed not a â€Å"dead† entity, but a social construction created and maintained by social practices. (Jennifer Wheeler-Brooks 2009) Again, although the organization structure provides the setting, in which workers fulfill and complete their daily task, the relationship between them, is not cast in stone, as employees remain as knowledgeable, responsive workers who have the ability to choose their own behaviors and thus either continuing or modifying the organization through their actions and behavior. It is also important to note that the modernists view on social structure comprises three mutually supportive dualities of structures and agency (workers), namely signification, domination, and legitimation. Although these three are inseparable in practice (Giddens, 1979, 1984), (Giddens, 1979, 1984), they may be analyzed separately. Structures of signification are institutionalized interpretive schemes that allocate meaning to peoples actions, such as beliefs, and language. Structures of legitimation are organization norms, constituted in the tacitly understood moral and social obligations (Clegg, 1989). Structures of domination are the institutionalized acquisition of power (Giddens, 1984). This can be in the form of, resources domination involving the structured distribution of material resources, such as products, services including right of access and deployment of such resources, as well as institutionalized authority relationships. (Giddens, 1984; Whittington, 1992) By concentrating on the discontinuities and changing patterns of behavior and relationships of an organization, one cannot help but question and probe deeper on the relationship between agency and structure. (Giddens 1979; Reed 1997). (Paula Jarzabkowski 2008) It can therefore also be said that formal structures have symbolic as well as action producing attributes. Structures can become injected with socially shared meanings, and thus, apart to their functional roles, can serve to share and bring information about the organization both internally and externally. A symbolic interpretation can therefore help provide a new and different perspective into the causes and consequences of structure within an organization. (Tolbert and Zucker, 1996, p. 177). (Van de Ven, Andrew H.; Dooley, Kevin; Holmes, Michael E. 2004) The symbolic interpretive perceives that the emergence of the organization social structure needs to include social interaction and human consciousness through social practices, routines and community interaction. Through the build up of ideas, knowledge and actions of people, a routine is birth and rebirth in response to new experiences observed. (Levitt and March, 1988) Routines may include organizational rules, roles, conventions, strategies, structures, cultural practices and capabilities. (Martin Schulz 2002) It is therefore incorrect to think of organizations as only departments or system units. Interpersonal correspondence is the crux of any organization as it creates structures and foundations which can then affect what needs to be done, who to do it and what to do after that. (Robert Lawrence Heath, Jennings Bryant 2000) Organizations are adaptable to their environments in ways such as creating jobs for specific occasions, purposes or people and evaluating and deciding to continue or discontinue the job, based on the new requirement and knowledge acquired. (Miner (1987, 1991). (Martin Schulz 2002) The Symbolic interpretive views the social structure of an organization through the process of knowledge transference within the organization. (Davenport and Prusak, 1996; Choo, 1998) Knowledge, symbolism and best-practice transfers within and between organizations is not a one-sided activity, but an ongoing process of sharing, involving trial and error, feedback, and the mutual adjustment of both the sender and receiver of knowledge. (Szulanski, 1996; Powell, 1998; Kaeser, 2001). (Georg von Krogh 2003) It is also viewed that the chief feature of human organization is the use of language and symbolism (including the attribution of meaning to things and making sense of the world). (Robert Cooper 1989) From the Symbolic interpretive perspective, language such as the use of words, shared vocabulary, the way workers speak about their organization, use of â€Å"slangs† and jargons can also be used to define the social structure within the organization. Such groups of people, â€Å"Communities of practice†, bond together due to similar passion for their skills and knowledge, and through regular interaction in order, develop a tacit understanding and meaning with one another, thus enhancing the social structure within an organization. (Etienne Wenger, Richard Arnold Mcdermott, William Snyder, 2002) The foundational perspectives of postmodernism are that the individuals in the organization do not have an independent consciousness but needs inter-communication with others to develop an identity. Meanings are not given prior to communication but arise from it and are context-dependent; meanings, structure and language are considered temporary due to the ever-changing environment and developments. (Bart Nooteboom, 1992) Where modern organizations favour bureaucratic structures that emphasis on roles, rules and procedures, postmodern organizations prefers a more democratic approach and views that are informal and based on mutual agreement. Comparing to modern organizations that favour separation of functions and departments, postmodern organizations favour de-differentiation of those elements. This allows the creation of multi-skilled worker that can break traditional structural boundaries and inflexible work processes. (Steve May, Dennis K. Mumby 2004) The social structure of an organization is viewed simply as a reflection of the built commitment of individuals to help develop a set of â€Å"rules† for the organization in order to survive in the ever changing postmodern era. (Jim Barry, 2000) Drawing much from the philosophies of language of (the later) Wittgenstein (1976) and de Saussure (1979), in Postmodernism, communication rather than consciousness is viewed as the backbone of knowledge, and hence the philosophy of language occupies a central position. Words are not longer interpreted as names of objects or properties (meanings, concepts) that are given prior to language unlike in the Symbolic interpretive perspective. (Bart Nooteboom, 1992) Language reveals the organizational reality by showing that it is a process that involuntarily includes its internal differences and conflicts. The social structure of the organization is always in disarray caused by threats and internal fighting. Organizations should therefore be viewed appropriately based on sense, intellect and logical context. This is very much unlike the modern thinking of the notion of an organization stability. (Robert Cooper 1989) However, despite the difference of â€Å"language† opinions, postmodernists still follow the fundamental social structure similar to that of the symbolic interpretive in that interaction between people does not arise from a fixed structural identity, but is formed through interaction between people. In the words of Lyotard: The self by itself does not amount to much, but it is not isolated. It is taken up in a tissue of relations which is more complex and mobile than ever. It always finds itself in a nexus in communication circuits, however small.(1979, p. 59, authors translation). (Bart Nooteboom, 1992) In conclusion, although the three perspectives differ in their interpretation and views on the dimension of an organizational structure, it can be agreed that all perspectives recognize the importance of the social structure of an organization as the key building block that forms the organization. Blau (1977: 1) â€Å"The study of social structure centres attention on the distribution of people among different positions and their social associations. Through the study of structural effects of the various perspectives, we are able to understand the spirit, character and characteristics of social structure within an organization, as well as the effects and outcomes it carries by looking at factors such as formal organization chart, differentiated positions within the structure, relationships among task-relevant roles, languages games used, differentiation, inter-communication, etc. Thus having a good understanding of the different perspectives and applying a mixture of different â€Å"theories† in the right context and environment will help to strengthen the organization as a whole and provide a better picture of what an organization is and why things are happening the way they are. Reference: Andrew H, Dooley, Holmes, Kevin, Michael E, Van de Ven, ‘Handbook of Organizational Change and Innovation Cary, NC, USA: Oxford University Press, Incorporated, 2004. p 179. Bart Nooteboom, ‘A Postmodern Philosophy of Markets, Int. Studies of Mgt. Org., Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 53-76 M.E. Sharpe, Inc., 1992 Dennis K. Mumby, Steve May, 2004, ‘Engaging Organizational Communication Theory Research. Etienne Wenger, Richard Arnold Mcdermott, William Snyder, 2002, ‘A Guide to management knowledge: Cultivating Communities of Practice Georg von Krogh, 2003, ‘Knowledge Sharing and the Communal Resource Han van Diest, 2008, ‘Possibilities of Democratisation in Organisations. Social Epistemology Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 97-117 Hatch, Mary J. and Cunliffe, Ann L., 2006, ‘Organization Theory, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press: Oxford Inkeles A. ‘Exploring Individual Modernity. New York: Columbia University Press, 1983 Jennifer Wheeler-Brooks ‘Journal of Sociology Social Welfare, March 2009, Volume XXXVI, Number 1 Jennings Bryant, Robert Lawrence Heath, 2000, ‘Human Communication Theory and Research. Jim Barry, 2000, ‘Organizations and Management. Lex Donaldson, 2001, ‘The Contingency Theory of Organizations Martin Schulz, 2002, ‘Organizational Learning Oded Shenkar, Shmuel Ellis, Tamar Almor, 2002, ‘Structural Contingency Revisited: Toward a Dynamic System Model Paula Jarzabkowski, 2008, ‘Shaping strategy as a Structuration Process Robert Cooper, ‘Modernism, Post Modernism and Organizational Analysis 3: The Contribution of Jacques Derrida Steven R Corman, Marshall Scott Poole, 2000, ‘Perspectives on Organization Communication

Cultural Background Knowledge And English Teaching Cultural Studies Essay

Cultural Background Knowledge And English Teaching Cultural Studies Essay Language is a mirror which reflects the entire culture, and every nation has its own culture. Language learning is inseparable from the understanding of cultural background knowledge. Cultural background knowledge is very important in language teaching. Here I want to talk about the relationship between them and how to teach. I. Introduction Language is a product of society, cultural differences led to many difficulties language learning, if you want to learn English as well, you must grasp cultural knowledge. Language learning is inseparable from the understanding of cultural background knowledge. It is necessary for teachers to pass on cultural background knowledge to students. II. Cultural  background  knowledge  and  English  teaching 1. Problems aroused by different cultural backgrounds Cultural plays an important role in language. They are linked closely. Different countries have different languages and cultures. Because of cultural differences, misunderstandings may arise, although the language used in communication may be faultless. The same words or expressions may not mean the same thing to different peoples. Because of cultural differences, a serious question may cause amusement or laughter ¼Ã¢â‚¬ ºA harmless statement may cause displeasure or anger. On the one hand, without language, culture would not be possible. On the other hand, language is influenced and shaped by culture; it reflects culture. Each culture is unique. Learning a foreign language means more than merely mastering the pronunciation, grammar, words and idioms. It means learning the ways in which their language reflects the ideas, customs, and behavior of their society, learning to understand their language of the mind. Learning a language, in fact, is inseparable from learning its culture. In china, dragon means lucky, but in the foreigners eyes dragon is the embodiment of evil. In China, we can free to ask a persons age, salary, or an items price, in the West, this is very impolite. A foreign teacher see a female student wearing a beautiful dress, she looks very nice. The teacher said happily, You look very beautiful today! The girl said shyly, No, no. This is an ordinary dress. The teacher praise a students English is pretty well, Your English is quite fluent. The student at once modestly said, No, no, my English is quite poor. The two Students answer is that the teacher never thought; and the teacher doesnt understand is that obviously female student wears the dress which looks pretty, the second students English is very good, but why both of them say, No. They make the teacher feel that they dont have their own opinions and dont know how to distinguish what is good, what is bad. A student, he met a foreigner in the park, he would like to practice his own spoken language, he said, Whats your name? What are you doing here? Follow me! The foreigner confused and thought that he did something wrong, and he had to be arrested and inquired. At last, let us see the following dialogues in many textbooks: 1. A: Whats your name? B: My name is Xiao Hong. A: How old are you? B: Im eleven. 2. A: Where are you going? B: Im going to the zoo. In china, when people meet each other, they always say, Where are you going? Are you out? although people do not want to know where you go. All the above dialogues, although forms are correct, they are not appropriate. So in language teaching, we should not only pass on knowledge of language and train learners competence of utilizing language, but also enhance teaching of relative cultural background knowledge. 2. Importance of cultural background knowledge in language teaching As we all know, Language is a part of the culture, they can not be separated each other. Therefore its necessary to understand the cultural background knowledge. In Modern high schools, the teachers mainly cultivate ability in listening, speaking, reading and writing, the ultimate aim is to train students to use English communicate with each other, the four aspects are inseparable from the cultural background knowledge. Without language, culture would not be possible. Language is influenced and shaped by culture; it reflects culture. Some people say that listening is an important aspect of communicative competence. Listening ability, reading ability, the listeners language skill, cultural background knowledge, thinking skill are closely related. If the language capability of the listener is relatively strong, but he knows a little cultural background knowledge, it is difficult to understand the meaning of the listening materials, even he makes a mistake in understanding. From this, culture plays an important role in English teaching. Speaking is not merely concerned with pronunciation and intonation. Students can only improve their oral English and reach the aim of communication by means of enormous reading, mastering rich language material and acquaintance of western culture. Therefore, in oral training, teachers should lay stress on factuality of language and adopt some material approaching to daily life, such as daily dialogues with tape, magazines, newspapers and report etc., because the material is from real life, and it helps students to be well acquainted with standard pronunciation and intonation, to speak English appropriate to the occasion, to understand western way of life and customs etc. Otherwise, misunderstanding and displeasure are inevitably aroused. In English, there are so many euphemisms that sometimes its hard to know the other ones actual mood. So we should pay attention to our answer. Reading English articles requires a certain language basis, but the competence of reading comprehension is not entirely related to ones language level. Knowledge of cultural background is also important. You can guess the meaning according to available language material, cultural background and logical reasoning. However, when we read English articles, differences between Chinese and western cultures often bring us many difficulties. People always recognize which kind of articles wrote by foreigners, which kind of articles wrote by Chinese. There are three main reasons, first, the writers English level is not so high, second, Chinese and western have different thinking ways, third, the articles style is very different because of different cultural. These three aspects show cultural play an important role in writing. In writing, we often use some modifiers to enhance the color of the article, and the articles are so vivid. Western thinks the magpie is not a sign of good luck, but Chinese think magpie is a symbol of celebration. People always say: Magpie call, something good will be happened. Therefore, cultural difference is the key that makes the articles be natural or not. If you want to achieve the level of writing of foreigners, you must grasp cultural background knowledge. Every aspects of language always reflects cultural, It means language learning and cultural background knowledge learning are not separate d. The content of cultural is very abundant, in the teaching process, the teachers shall explain cultural background knowledge in any time, make the students take language and cultural knowledge into listening, speaking, reading, writing skills, so as to the students can easily communicate with foreigners and read foreign materials. Translating and writing cant be separated from cultural background knowledge. We shall take the word dog as an example. To English-speaking people and Chinese, there are very different meanings. Lai Pi Gou and Sang JiaZhiquan are often used to describe disgusting people. But dog in English, especially in proverbs, is a commendatory term. If we translate dog into Chinese dog without exception, we may make jokes. For example: 1. Every dog has his day. 2. You are, indeed, a lucky dog., 3. Last night my father came home dog-tired. Because some learners are not well aware of the cultural differences, they take it for granted that the three sentences should be translated into the following: 1.à ¦Ã‚ ¯Ã‚ Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ Ã‚ ¡Ãƒ §Ã¢â‚¬ ¹-à ©Ã†â€™Ã‚ ½Ãƒ ¦Ã…“†°Ãƒ ¨Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã‚ ªÃƒ ¥Ã‚ ·Ã‚ ±Ãƒ §Ã… ¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ ¨Ã…  Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ ¦- ¥Ãƒ £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ 2.à ¤Ã‚ ½Ã‚  Ãƒ §Ã…“Å ¸Ãƒ ¦Ã‹Å" ¯Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ Ã‚ ¡Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¹Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ Ãƒ §Ã… ¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ §Ã¢â‚¬ ¹-à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ 3.à ¦Ã‹Å" ¨Ãƒ ¦Ã¢â€ž ¢Ã… ¡Ãƒ ¦Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬ËœÃƒ §Ã‹â€ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ §Ã‹â€ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ ¥Ã¢â‚¬ ºÃ… ¾Ãƒ ¥Ã‹â€ Ã‚ °Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ®Ã‚ ¶Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ­Ãƒ ¥Ã†â€™Ã‚ Ãƒ §Ã¢â‚¬ ¹-à ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ ¦Ã‚  Ã‚ ·Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¾-à §Ã‚ ´Ã‚ ¯Ãƒ £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ In fact, the right translations are as follows: 1.à ¤Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ºÃƒ ¤Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ºÃƒ §Ã… ¡Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒ ¦Ã…“†°Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¾-à ¦Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ Ãƒ ¦- ¶Ãƒ £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ 2.à ¤Ã‚ ½Ã‚  Ãƒ §Ã…“Å ¸Ãƒ ¦Ã‹Å" ¯Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ªÃƒ ¥Ã‚ ¹Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ Ãƒ ¥Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ 3.à ¦Ã‹Å" ¨Ãƒ ¦Ã¢â€ž ¢Ã… ¡Ãƒ ¦Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬ËœÃƒ §Ã‹â€ Ã‚ ¶Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ²Ãƒ ¥Ã¢â‚¬ ºÃ… ¾Ãƒ ¥Ã‹â€ Ã‚ °Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ®Ã‚ ¶Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ­Ãƒ ©Ã‚ Ã… ¾Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ §Ã‚ ´Ã‚ ¯Ãƒ £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ It is clear that cultural background knowledge is necessary in language teaching. Teachers should help students to solve the difficulties in language as well as in culture. Thus, teachers should further improve your quality of teaching. Especially you should teach cultural background knowledge as possible as you can. 3. How to carry out the teaching of cultural background knowledge Firstly teachers should choose proper teaching material. Especially the foreign material should be used, just like dialogues, next, teachers should explain cultural factors involved in the material with purpose. There is an example like this: Helen: Hello, Susan, where are you going? Susan: Im going to get a magazine and some chocolate. Helen: Lets go to that newsagent in the corner. I want some cigarettes. Susan: I want to go the one down the road. Ive got to send off this parcel and there is a post-office in that one. It tells us in England some newsagentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¡those shops not only sell sweets and cigarettes, but also install post office where people can send off letters and parcels. But in China, there are not such shops. If teachers dont explain for this, students may feel puzzled. Secondly, Teachers should take cultural background knowledge and English teaching into four aspects of language learning, they are listening, speaking, reading, writing skills. Teachers should give some information about cultural background knowledge in listening course. A lot of students listening level is not so high, not only because they do not grasp English words and their grammatical concept is unclear but also they dont have cultural background knowledge. There are two jokes here: à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ËœÃ‚  A: Where are you from? B: Ill ask her (Alaska) A: Why do you ask her? à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ËœÃ‚ ¡A: Where are you from? B: How are you? (Hawaii) In the two jokes, to A, B do not understand question, but if you know the United States has two states: Alaska and Hawaii, then A will not make a mistake. From this, in listening course, teachers give cultural background knowledge to students, not only enhance the listening skill of them, but also enable students to obtain knowledge. In reading course, teachers should explain cultural background knowledge. If you want to read, you must have English basic. Cultural background knowledge is so important. Thirdly, in the classroom, teacher should pay attention to proper language forms as well as suitable use of language. One way of classroom teaching is to ask students to make similar dialogues to the text. A student inevitably needs to play a role and carry on a conversation according to a certain role. Teacher should attract the students attention to his role and point out his expressions which are improper for his character or the occasion. Furthermore, remind students to pay attention to details such as pronunciation, intonation, countenance wording, gesture etc. Fourthly, teachers should use good native English videotapes and films in teaching, and then organize discussions. Teachers should use pictures, movies in teaching, students can easily understand some cultural background knowledge, and Western social and cultural factors. Fifthly, encourage students to communicate with native English speakers. But so far, we havent carried out such activities enough. In contact with native speakers, in such relaxed conversations, students can learn much knowledge, which cannot be learned in the classroom. Sixthly, hold some lectures about cultures and customs, comparing Chinese culture with western culture. In teaching, teachers should pay attention to cultural differences and study these differences. As English teachers, we should not only help students to learn a foreign language, but also to learn social and cultural background knowledge. Only so, students can widen their knowledge and thus further learn English well. III. Conclusion Language is a mirror which reflects the entire culture, and every nation has its own culture. Language learning is inseparable from the understanding of cultural background knowledge. Language is a product of society, cultural differences led to many difficulties language learning, if you want to learn English as well, you must grasp cultural knowledge. It is necessary for teachers to pass on cultural background knowledge to students. In short, there are great differences between Chinese and Western culture, language and culture are inseparable, if you do not understand the foreign language and cultural background, you can not correctly understand and use language. Not only enable students to master the basic knowledge, but should also strengthen cultural Background Knowledge in teaching, so that they learn and come from different social background, cultural practices, political systems of the people live in harmony, so as to really reach in English teaching purposes