Possible Factors In Underachievement Of Males Within Education Education Essay

Possible Factors In Underachieve custodyt Of Males Within develop workforcet Education proveSociological studies with regard the under achievement of males, end-to-end the British program line system, appear to be dominated by the summary of three central phenomena the idea of bow and inequality which flaws the educational system, the prevalence of a modern day, laddish anti-learning culture (Byers, S. 1998, neer mind theories, under-achieving boys choose practical attend, _The Independent_, 5th January 1998.) and lastly, the psychology of the male mind. for severally superstar of these three interlinked themes go show up be re sucked within this document, which will reduce just upon the reasons which may held accoun accede for the identified underachievement of late-fangled men, most nonably, at a General Certificate of Secondary Education Level (G.C.S.E) throughout the British education system, and internationally, around the world.The use of the term underach ievement is widespread throughout educational dissertate, and is predominately employ in explaining a perceived failure to reach a given say-so. Scott .J. Marshall .G. (20053). Sociologists, whose atomic enactment 18a of expertise lies within this lead officular field, make it to attitude low faculty member advancement in terms of factors such(prenominal) as prior development or socio-economic disadvant sequence, however in doing so, they mark the danger of pathologising the underachiever, when in fact, responsibility may lie within the educational system itself. The term underachievement although widely used, appears to be lineatic masking ideological givens that meet socially constructed, subjective and coitus subject areas, which concern the group under call for. The underachievement of unripe men within the education system is doubtlessly an giganticly multiplex and contested field. Irrespective of these issues, the British education system has continued to take shape use of the term with a combination of ubiquity and confidence.Gillies, D. (2010). educational potential underachievement and ethnic pluralism. Available http//www.abdn.ac.uk/eitn/display.php? member_id=39. Last accessed 1sixth Feb 2011.Historical BackgroundThe underachievement of young men within the education system has appe bed as a repetitive problem throughout the last decade. Dramatic illustrations from the media and speeches gave by the relevant administration bodies exhaust created in a experience a lesson alarm which has came to characterise m either of the debates that surround the complex issue. Evidence from parvenuspaper articles would imply the underachievement of boys began in 1995. During this metre the main professional newspaper, The times Educational add carried headlines declaring prepargon get to was Not for wimps Haigh, G. 1995, Not for wimps,_ The Times Educational Supplement_, 6th October 1995 and later asked Where did we go wrong? Bleach, K. 1997, Where did we go wrong?,_ The Times Educational Supplement_, 14th February 1997. Education correspondents for broadsheet newspapers similarly headlined articles which discussed The Failing Sex and called for instills to supply a Classroom rescue for Britains lost boys. Foster et al. (2001) What or so the boys? An overview of the debates, in Martino .W. Meyenn .B. What just around The Boys, Issues of Masculinity in Schools. spread out University Press.Acknowledgement of the underachievement of boys within the education system washstand similarly be recognizen in Stephen Byers 1998 speech. The School exemplifications Minister, give tongue to We should not simply accept with a shrug of our shoulders that boys will be boys. Speaking at the 11th International Congress for School durability and Improvement in Manchester, Mr Byers warned Failure to raise the educational achievement of boys will bastardly that thousands of young men will face a perfect(a) fut ure in which a lack of qualifications and basic skills will mean unemployment and little hope of finding work. He disclosed new statistics on the bars of education at the time that had been reached by boys and girlfriends. For example, in addition to girls distant outperforming boys at a General Certificate Secondary Education take aim (G.C.S.E), National Curriculum assessments at seven, 11 and fourteen historic period of age also broad(prenominal)lighted boys underperforming, within English Language in particular. Byers then went on to make an attack on what he described as the rife laddish anti-learning culture. (Byers, S. 1998, Never mind theories, under-achieving boys need practical help, _The Independent_, 5th January 1998.) In reaction to Stephen Byers identification of male underachievement, Ted Wragg also published an article in the Times Educational Supplement, The Times Educational Supplement Editorial. 1997, Keeping Balance on the Gender Agenda, _ the Times Educat ional Supplement_, 23rd May 1997.Within this article Professor Ted Wragg warned un slight the achievement of boys was improved signifi tailtly society would witness immense problems that would continue throughout the 21st nose candy. The then Chief Inspector for Schools, Chris Woodhead also conceptualized the failure of boys, in particular working class boys to be one of the most disturbing problems faced within the entire education system. As a result of such media hype education ministers called for all academician institutions to challenge the laddish anti-learning culture, (Byers, S. 1998, Never mind theories, under-achieving boys need practical help, _The Independent_, 5th January 1998.) which had been allowed to develop. fetching such media build up and government vocalizations into con situationration, it would appear nearlything significant entered humankind consciousness during this time.Despite media and government claims of boys underachievement being a juvenile p henomenon, problems concerning boys and academic discipline has, in fact, been a longstanding priority with regard to educational studies. In particular the English philosopher John Locke, among early(a)s expressed great concern with regard the problems boys faced in language and literacy, in the 17th century. besides literature on schooling throughout the 1960s and 1970s cautioned teachers against radical boys fit in to their academic ability as it resulted in less academic boys growth negative attitudes towards education and schools. Foster et al. (2001) What to the highest degree the boys? An overview of the debates, in Martino .W. Meyenn .B. What About The Boys, Issues of Masculinity in Schools. Open University Press.The introduction of the National Curriculum on board the induction of complex assessment and reporting procedures, many believe, was what initially highlighted the problem of male underachievement in todays society. From 1991 onwards students have been made to complete model Assessment Tasks (S.A.T.s) at the ages of seven, eleven and fourteen. Responsibility lies with the educational institutions at this time to ensure pupils achieve the expected standards. Additionally schools undergo rigorous management such inspections appear to be central to the Educational Schools Act 1992, which introduced the death penalty of National League Tables. These tables rank schools according to their pupils performance in the Standard Assessment Tasks (S.A.T.s).Many believe such a procedure was what come the scene for the emergence of the boys underachievement debate. In order for schools to survive they had to attract clients in the form of p atomic number 18nts, and they could only attract p bents if they were able to demonstrate they provided and delivered a high standard of education. Schools were judged to be efficient by the national league tables according to their success in getting pupils to reach the required standards at the ages of seve n, eleven and fourteen.In 1996 the Equal Opportunities Commission and the Office for Standards in Education produced a joint report on performance differences between boys and girls in school. Their findings include girls being more than than in(predicate) than boys or broadly as successful in almost all major subjects. They reported girls tended to be more reflective than boys and also better at planning and organising their work. Reactions to these findings that boys are doing less well in school and are also suffering in other respects, such as the disproportionate degree of unemployment, as mentioned previously have varied. Some have identified what they see to be a crucial social problem of the 21st century. Others see it as solely a symptom of a male backlash, creating a sense of moral panic, aimed at clawing back the gains made by women in recent divisions. In light of such diverse view points, when exploreing this area for myself it would appear necessary to mantain a sense of balance before finishing upon any such conclusion.Official statistics on the academic performance of pupils in Northern Ireland, England and Wales establish girls have been performing increasingly well compared to boys in terms of their attainment at General Certificate of Secondary Education (G.C.S.E) level examinations in most subjects. As mentioned previously, this development has been the focus of considerable debate in twain the popular media and the academic press, with regular pronouncements from politicians and government policy makers. The patent heated debate over boys underachievement throughout the 1990s and into the 21st century is not solely connected to Britain, figures suggest male underachievement is a moot issue in Australia, Canada, The United States of America, parts of Western Europe and Japan. Epstein. D. Et al. (1998) Educating Boys, breeding Gender. Open University Press.Foc development upon the underachievement of boys within the considerati on of the United Kingdom, Northern Ireland in particular, I plan to focus upon Symbolic Interactionism as the cornerstone of my have got theoretical enquiry. I plan to consider Symbolic Interactionist debates over Britains at sea Boys and the undoubtable underachievement of boys compared to girls in current(p) subjects, predominately at General Certificate of Secondary Education level (G.C.S.E). Symbolic Interactionists, unthe likes of functionalists and conflict theorists, tend to limit their analysis of education to what they directly observe happening within the classroom. Their main focus is on teacher, pupil relationships and the interaction processes that occur within the classroom.Symbolic Interactionists see the education system as playing a vital fictional character in shaping the way students see reality and themselves. Interactionists such as Howard Becker see school check offtings as creating serious difficulties for students who are labelled as less academically a ble than their peers. He believed such students may never be able to see themselves as good students and move beyond such labels. Teacher expectations play a huge office in student achievement from an interactionists point of view and this is a point I would be use uped in investigating further with regard to my induce research.Labelling theory, was positive predominately by Howard Becker who in Outsiders 1963 argued underachievement to be created by society, in the sense social groups create underachievement by making the rules whose infraction constitutes low attainment and by applying those rules to particular persons and labelling them as such Scott .J. Marshall .G. (2005341) Becker and Lermert initially developed Labelling Theory, Hargreaves et al showed how it could apply within school settings and Rosenthal and Jacobson suggested that it could create a self- greatness Fulfilling prophecy in school, such that children defined as lurid would in fact live up to such expec tations.In education, despite the Rosenthal and Jacobson study, labelling- nominate self-fulfilling prophecies ordinarily operate to the disadvantage of students. Specific categories of students, based on gender, ethnicity or thus social background, may be indite off as incompetent of achieving, setting up a frame of reference in which their failings are noticed and their achievements discounted. Individual students may also be labelled by being told they will never amount to anything, or for example they are no good at a particular subject. Internalised, these labels are carried into new situations, including further and higher education, as a result many believe the failure of the student to be inevitable.Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson conducted a land mark study for this approach in 1968. Firstly, they examined a group of students in accordance with standard IQ tests. The researchers then identified a number of students who they said would apparent show a sharp increas e in abilities over the attack year. They informed the teachers of these results, and asked them to watch and see if this increase did occur. When the researchers repeated the IQ tests at the end of the year, the students identified by the researchers did thus show higher IQ scores. The significance of this study lies in the fact that the researchers had randomly selected a number of average students. The researchers instal that when the teachers expected a particular performance or growth, it occurred. This phenomenon, where a false assumption actually occurs because someone predicted it, reinforces the notion of a self-fulfilling prophesy. Rosenthal .R. Jacobson .L. (1992) Pygmalion in the Classroom, Teachers Expectations and Pupils Intellectual Development. Crown House Publishing Limited.Ray Rist conducted research similar to the Rosenthal and Jacobson study in 1970. In a kindergarten classroom where both students and teacher were of African American origin, the teacher assig ned students to tables based on ability the so called better students sat at a table contiguous to her, the average students sat at the next table, and the weakest students sat at the farthest table. Rist discovered that the teacher assigned the students to a table based on the teachers perception of the students skill levels on the eighth day of class, without any form of testing to verify such a placement. Rist also found that the students the teacher perceived as better learners came from higher social classes, patch the weak students were from lower social classes. Monitoring the students through the year, Rist found that the students closer to the teacher received the most economic aid and performed better. The farther from the teacher a student sat, the weaker that student performed. Rist continued the study through the next some(prenominal) years and found that the labels assigned to the students on the eighth day of kindergarten followed them throughout their academic jo urney. Rist, Ray (1970). Student Social Class and Teacher Expectations The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy in Ghetto Education. Harvard Educational Review 40, 3, 411-451.While Symbolic Interactionists have undoubtedly analysed this self fulfilling process, they have save to find the exact way in which teachers form such expectations of students. Irrespective of such an issue I musical note the Self Fulfilling Prophecy may be a crucial ascertain factor with regard to answering my own research question.The real importance of Rosenthal and Jacobsons findings at Oak School relates to the potential long-lasting effectuate of teachers expectations on the scholastic performance of students. It is of interest to explore some later research that examined the ways in which teachers unconsciously communicate their higher expectations to the students whom they believe get greater potential. A study conducted by Chaiken, Sigler, and Derlega (1974) involved videotaping teacher-student interactions in a classroom situation in which the teachers had been informed that certain children were extremely bright (these bright students had been chosen at random from all the students in the class). wary examination of the videos indicated that teachers favoured the identified brighter students in many subtle ways. They smiled at these students more often, made more eye contact, and had more favourable reactions to these students comments in class. These researchers go on to report that students for whom these high expectations exist are more apt(predicate) to enjoy school receive more constructive comments from teachers on their mistakes, and work harder to try to improve. What this and other studies indicate are those teacher expectancies, while their enchant is not the only determinant of a childs performance in school, can affect more than just IQ scores.Due in bigger part to Rosenthal and Jacobsons research, the forefinger of teachers expectations on students performance has break an integral part of our understanding of the educational process. Furthermore, Rosenthals theory of interpersonal expectancies has exerted its influence in numerous areas other than education. In 2002, Rosenthal himself review articleed the literature on expectancy effects using meta-analysis techniques. He demonstrated how the expectations of psychological researchers, classroom teachers, judges in the courtroom, product line executives, and health care providers can unintentionally affect the responses of their research participants, pupils, jurors, employees, and patients (Rosenthal, 2002, p. 839).Martino .W. Meyenn .B. (2001) What about the Boys, Issues of Masculinity in Schools. Open University Press.What about the Boys, Issues of Masculinity in Schools is a book which attempts to develop further understandings about maleness. such(prenominal) a element of literature is timely given the continued moral panic that persists about boys disadvantaged status in comparison to girls. Throughout this book the view boys are victims and are attributed with a disadvantaged status remains throughout. enquiry undertaken with boys spanning Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States is brought together in this collection. The focus for each of the contributors is addressing issues of what about the boys in relation to their own research and informed perspectives on boys and schooling.Many focus on what boys (and girls) themselves say about their experiences of schooling and sexual activity and use their voices as a basis for drawing out what the implications big businessman be for those working in schools. In this regard the chapters are written with a broader audience in mind particularly teachers and administrators in schools with the view to using research to illuminate the effects of masculinity in the lives of boys and girls at school. All of the contributors are concerned to highlight the impact and effect of certain forms of masculinity on the lives of boys at school, but locate their research and/or discussion within the con textual matter of the boys education debates outlined by Foster, Kimmell and Skelton in the introductory chapter. Many have also indicated what the implications of their research are for day-to-day practice in schools and classrooms. In this sense, the research documented here has major implications for the professional development of teachers in schools and for student teachers in tertiary institutions.Sociologists like Bob Connell (1987, 1995) have been particularly influential in drawing concern to how social, cultural and historical factors have influenced the heterogeneous ways in which masculinity comes to be defined and embodied by boys and men. We see the contributors of this book edifice on this work. They highlight that there are many forms of masculinity that are played out in the context of a complex set of power relations in which certain types of masculinity are indigenceed ov er others. Many also draw attention to the role of a dominant form of masculinity, which comes to be defined in opposition to femininity, and highlight that association with the feminine for boys can often lead to other boys unbelieving their sexuality (see also Frank,1987, 1993). Other factors such as race, class, ethnicity and geographical fixing are also taken up to develop an understanding of the various ways in which boyslearn to relate and behave in certain social situations and within particular educational institutions. In this sense womens liberationist educators and theories also inform the perspectives on boys and schooling elaborated in this book. Such perspectives have contributed significantly to producing valuable insights into the links between gender and power (Davies 1993 Steinberg et al. 1997), specifically in terms of illuminating boys social practices and ways of relatingat school.All contributors recognize that schools are important arenas of power where masc ulinities and femininities are acted out on a daily basis through the dynamic processes of negotiation, refusal and seek (Giroux and McLaren 1994). In other words, these papers illustrate that there are indeed social constraints and power imbalances in educational sites, but that gender regimes are more shifting and contradictory than theorists supposed in the seventies and mid-eighties (Jackson and Salisbury 1996 Kenway et al. 1997). In this sense, each chapter included in this collection builds on studies into boys at school which have been undertaken by Kessler et al. (1985), Walker (1988), Macan Ghaill (1994) and Epstein (1994).The contributors also suggest ways forward and beyond the popular and simplistic views which direction the need for boys to reclaim lost territory. There is a unchewable discourse of neglect informing many of the popularist debates about the boys which continue to assert that readiness for the educationalneeds of girls has been at the expense of boys (Yates 1997). Moreover, the idea or assumption that boys are somehow victims or losers now competing with girls who have suddenly become the winners is also refuted strongly by the various positions that are taken up in this book. Compounding such a position is the view that biological science needs to be given equal consideration in developing an understanding of boys behaviours and learning orientations. This argument continues to be promulgated within the context of these debates about the boys (see submissions to Australian inquiry into boys education at http//www.aph.gov.au/house/ military commission/eewr/Epfb/sublist.htm) as if appeals to biological sex differences and essentialism are somehow outside the effects of certain power relations (see Fausto-Sterling 2000). As Peterson (2000) has illuminated, appeals to biological determinism have been usedhistorically to enforce a binary categorization of gendered behaviours always within the context of and in response to the perc eived power gained by women. Moreover, as Lingard and Douglas (1999) have lucidly illustrated, the debates about the boys in the nineties have been characterized by a strong backlash against feminism and this continues to be the case as we enter the new millennium. If we are indeed to encourage diversity and citizenship in multicultural societies it is crucial that issues of opportunity, access and distributed success before grounded in debates about gendered educational outcomes. Collins et al. (2000) have addressed this in a recent governmental report on the factorsinfluencing the educational performance of males and females in school and their post-school labour destinations.In line with the positions taken up in that report, we believe that policy formulation and curriculum development in schools must negate the popularist tendency to assert a binary oppositional and competing victims perspective on the factors impacting on the social and educational experiences of boys and gir ls. This will only lead to homogenizing and normalizing boys and girls on the basis of biological sex differences and, hence, reinforce the very interlingual renditions of masculinity which the researchshows have detrimental consequences for both the former and the latter. This book, thusly, is offered as an attempt to provide a more informed perspective on the social practices of masculinity impacting on boys lives at school. We hope that it will have the effect of moving the debates beyond the feminist backlash rhetoric which persists in casting boys as the new victims. If anything, as the contributors of this book argue, the issue that needs to be addressed is the coronation that many boys, men and schools have in promoting a particular version of masculinity which is to their detriment in the sense that it limits them from developing a wider repertory of behaviours and ways of relating. Until a commitment is made, particularly by men and boys themselves, to addressing the role that sexuality, homophobia and misogyny continue to play in how many of them define and hash out theirMasculinities, we believe that very little will change.Connolly .P. (2004) Boys and Schooling in the primeval Years. Routledge Falmer Press.Boys underachievement in education has now become a international concern, prioritised exceedingly b government bodies around the world. Boys and Schooling in the early years represents the first study of its kind to focus solely upon young men and their achievement within the education system. Throughout this book this is a powerful argument for the need to begin tackling the problem of boss lower educational performance in the early years. This proved entirely beneficial as it includes one of the most slender analyses of national statistics regarding gender differences in educational achievement from the early years right through until compulsory schooling. in concert with original and in depth case studies which vividly capture the diffe ring experiences and perspectives of 5-6 year old boys, this book sets out the nature of the problems facing young boys in education and highlights a number of practical ways in which they can begin to be addressed. This is entirely relevant as i am concerned about boys lower levels of achievement.This book follows the sandwich model for the filling, dismal case studies of two contrasting schools in Northern Ireland and, around the outside, nutritious chapters of theorizing, a critical review of the rhetoric and reality of the problem, and a detailed discussion of the strategies needed to sort everything out. Of these, probably the most useful is the chapter that sets the factual record straight, dismissing some current explanations of boys under-achievement its not their brains, neurons or testosterone that are to infernal it isnt a question of girls holding boys back, or the feminization of schools, or an plaguey of laddish behavior. Rather, Connolly argues, the key factor in boys poor educational performance relative to girls is masculinity itself or, rather, masculinities.This is the rationale for the case studies that follow one school in an affluent, peaceful, bourgeoisie area, and another in a seriously disadvantaged parturiency area, riven by sectarian rage. It is also the starting point for the authors research questions what are the dominant forms of masculinity in the early years, and how do they influence boys attitudes towards schooling?Between October 2001 and June 2002, Connolly spent a day a week in each of the two primary schools, observing five and six-year-old boys, and interviewing boys, teachers and parents. In the middle-class school, dinosaurs are cool but reading is rubbish, while, on the other side of the tracks, resistance to school reaches dizzy heights. Boys in this school are not without enthusiasms, but these appear to be football, fighting, wrestling, pulling down girls trousers and marching with the local anaesthetic lo yalist flute band. The chapter on home-school relations in this school is even more depressing, as parents describe how the teachers discourage their children from even entering for the 11-plus.Bad news all round then, including the research process itself in particular, there are some dodgy interview questions that virtually ingest the boys, across the class divide, to assert their innate superiority If you had a choice, would you want to be girls or boys? Would either of you like to be a girl? The boys answers fall smoothly into the stereotyped trap prepared for them.Nevertheless, this book asks some serious questions, not least of which is why do we worry so untold about gender differences when social class has a much greater impact on achievement? Furthermore, why are so many teachers apparently so willing to accept their pupils low levels of achievement on entry as a sure and certain guide to the future? And, lastly, when are we going to learn what Bronwen Davies tried to te ach us long ago (in Frogs and Snails and Feminist Tales) about the need to go beyond male-female dualism, so that we can position ourselves, and our pupils, as neither male, nor female, but human. Im yet to be convinced that studies such as Connollys are going to help us take this tremendous step forward.Head .J. (1999) Understanding the Boys, Issues of mien and Achievement. Falmer Press.Attention is given to general aspects of learning and assessment before examining the response of boys to specific subjects within the curriculum. Personal, social and health education concerns are addressed. http//www.dropshippers.co.za/This text aims to increase understanding of the potential causes of underachievement, violence and even suicide amongst jejune boys. Suicide has dramatically increased among young males and academic underachievement is common. The author argues that it is therefore important to understand the young male psyche. The text addresses questions such as has male behavio r in school worsened, or has media hype inflated the proportions of a good bosh what is at the root of male violence and are biological or social explanations telling the whole story? The author shows that it is only by engaging boys in arenas of thought and feeling that we can understand and help overcome the difficulties faced by boys today.The issue of boys work and behavior in school has created considerable public interest and has undoubtedly polarized opinion, with some claiming it is the greatest social problem of our time, while other asserts it is merely an expression of male backlash intended to divert attention and resources from the need of girls and women. The first of the two sections within this book contains a review discussion of the various explanatory models biological, social and psychological. Emerging message is schools and teachers matter in academic performance can be made and we need not see the failing or difficult boys as necessarily trapped in their c urrent position. Head believed the key to successful hinderance was in understanding the boys and attempting to see things from their perspective.Martino .W. et al. (2003) so whats a boy, addressing the issues of masculinity and schooling. Open University Press.So whats a bay? is a timely volume. It comes at a critical point in the expanding debate regarding boys and schools. Juxtaposed against an increasingly vociferous and often times stark mass media, this book offers a blue and contemporary view of boys and their place in that confused environment called school. However, not content to simply cite data and/or repeat refrains found elsewhere, the authors have avoided the boy crisis trap and raised the debate by taking an appealing, narrative approach. One can hear and appreciate the voices of boys (all kinds of different boys) through this volumeMore Articles of InterestMALE TEACHERS AND THE BOY PROBLEM AN stretch forth OF RECUPERATIVEEDUCATING BOYS TEMPERING RHETORIC WITH R ESEARCHEDITORIALWHATS TO FEAR traffic HOMOPHOBIA INTO QUESTIONReal Men or Real Teachers Contradictions in the lives of men elementaryhttp//dw.com.com/redir?tag=rbxira.2.a.10destUrl=http//www.cnet.com/b.gifThe book is divided into three, roughly equal sections. function 1, Normalization and Schooling, sets the general scene and brings the reader into the lives of boys with discussions regarding body image, emerging masculinities, push around/harassment, and friendships. The second part, Diverse Masculinities, delves into the central issue of how boys see themselves, their developing sexuality, cultural/home conditions, how they are seen by others, and how